Introduction to Philosophy

• The text provided is a study guide on philosophy.

Philosophy and its Sub-Disciplines

• Philosophy (Φιλοσοφία) literally means "love or friend of wisdom."
• The Greek words that comprise "philosophy" are Φίλος (philos), meaning "friend" or "lover," and σοφία (sophía), meaning "wisdom."

Metaphysics

• Metaphysics studies the fundamental structure of reality.
• It examines what makes something real, what establishes existence, and the properties of existence or reality.
• Metaphysics aims to answer foundational questions like "What does it mean to be?" and "What is existence?"

Ontology

• Ontology studies what exists and the assumptions about the kinds of entities that make up reality.
• These assumptions are held by an individual, group, or belief system.
• Materialist ontology includes atoms but excludes ghosts.
• Theological ontology includes spirits, atoms, and God.
• Animist/pantheist ontologies view spirits, atoms, and God as interconnected or not fundamentally different.

Epistemology

• Epistemology investigates the nature, scope, and justification of knowledge.
• Key questions include: What is knowledge? What distinguishes knowledge from belief? How do we know things? Under what circumstances is a claim knowledge?
• Epistemology evaluates standards/criteria for assessing if something qualifies as knowledge and explores the processes/conditions that warrant or establish it.

Ethics

• Ethics investigates questions about the right and the good.
• It addresses what it means to do the right thing, what makes an action morally right or wrong, and what makes something good or bad.
• Ethics explores the principles, values, and criteria that guide human behavior and moral judgment.

Normative Ethics

• Normative ethics aims to establish prescriptions of behavior rather than mere descriptions.
• Key questions include: "What should I do?" and "What is the right thing to do?"

Logic

• Logic studies the principles of correct reasoning.
• It seeks to ensure arguments are "truth preserving.”

Argument

• An argument involves a group of statements where premises support or justify a conclusion.

Premises

• Premises are statements providing support or justification for a conclusion.

Conclusion

• A conclusion is the statement that follows logically from the premises.

Rhetoric

• Rhetoric is the art of convincing or persuading someone of a claim, regardless of its truth.

Sophistry

• Sophistry involves using fallacious reasoning to convince others, with a connotation of dishonesty.

Validity

• An argument is valid if the premises were true, then the conclusion would be guaranteed to be true.

Soundness

• An argument is sound if it is valid and its premises are true.

Reductio ad Absurdum

• Reductio ad absurdum disproves a premise by showing it leads to an absurd or contradictory conclusion.

Plato

• Plato was a student of Socrates.
• A great deal of information about Socrates comes from Plato's writings.
• Socrates did not write, therefore knowledge of Socrates' philosophy comes from Plato's dialogues.
• Socrates is often the main character in Plato's dialogues.
• Later dialogues may reflect Plato's philosophical views.

Forms

• Forms: essential properties defining a thing's identity, distinct from accidental properties.
• Accidental properties are characteristics that could change without affecting identity.
• For Plato, forms are immaterial and define categories.
• Forms exist independently in a "Realm of Forms."
• Physical world things are imperfect forms copies.

Triangle Example

• Essential properties of a triangle: closed shape with three sides, internal angles sum to 180°, defined by three points connected by straight lines.
• Accidental properties: size, color, orientation.

Human Being Example

• Essential properties of a human being: rational, thinking, human genetic structure, capacity for speech/reason.
• Accidental properties: Hair color, height, clothing.
• Forms are abstract, unchanging realities, not physical objects.
• Forms remain constant and eternal while physical objects change, decay, disappear.

Circle Example

• Physical circles: imperfect copies of circle form.
• We understand perfect circle concepts.
• Mathematical circles: true in logic/reason.
• Mathematics gives a a precise understanding using equations.
• Plato's Theory suggests imperfect circles depend on circle form by:
  • Metaphysical dependence: Physical circles exist because they participate/are imperfect instances of an eternal, ideal form.
  • Epistemological dependence: Ability to recognize circles comes from prior knowledge.
• Mimesis: imitation/copying in which physical objects are imperfect imitations of the perfect Forms.
• Knowledge of circles attained through reason, not experience, and circles exist as reflections/copies of the ideal.

Plato's Apology

• Socrates was charged with corrupting he youth and impiety.
• He was found guilty and sentenced to death by drinking hemlock.
• The Oracle declared that no one was wiser than Socrates.
• Socrates questioned politicians, poets, and craftsmen, exposing that they were not truly wise.
• Unlike sophists claiming knowledge, Socrates showed commitment to seeking truth, recognizing his own ignorance.

Socrates vs Sophists

• Sophists: traveling teachers of rhetoric/persuasion for a fee.
• Socrates: did not teach for money and sought understanding.
• The Unexamined Life: not worth living because a meaningful life requires self reflection, critical thinking, and truth pursuit.

Socrates' Challenge

• Socrates challenged dogmatism and power by exposing contradictions in the beliefs of powerful figures through questioning.

Dogmatism

• Dogmatism: Holding beliefs without question.
• Socrates encouraged people to question tradition/authority, and his trial reflects conflict between free thought/societal control.

Gadfly Metaphor

• Socrates compares himself to a gadfly, irritating Athens.
• He is awakening Athenians from laziness.

Threats

• Authorities disliked Socrates because he exposed contradictions by people thought to be wise.
• Socrates challenged the foundations of Athenian democracy and leadership.
• His gadfly role caused his unpopularity with powerful figures.

Meno's Paradox

• Meno's question: How do you look for what you don't know?
  • If we know something, no need to search; if we don't, recognition is impossible.
  • Socrates answers this via recollection theory, meaning learning becomes recalling innate knowledge. .

Socrates Soul

• The soul is immortal and has known all knowledge before birth. Learning is recollection, recovering knowledge within us. Recognizing truth explained because of prior experience with it.

Slave Boy Example

• Socrates questions a slave boy (no geometry knowledge and guides him.
• The boy arrives to the conclusion about doubling a square
• Argued that the boy recollected it from knowledge his soul already had.
• Socrates' rationalist idea: true knowledge comes from reason over experience.

Aristotle

• Rejecting Plato's ideas, Aristotle founded Lyceum promoting empirical research vs. rationalism. Aristotle's works are lecture notes.
• Plato believed Forms exist independently (Idealism), whereas:
  • Aristotle believed Forms exist within objects as inseparable from material reality (Hylomorphism). Plato: Forms are separate; physical things imperfect imitations (Mimesis). Aristotle sees "treeness" existing in each tree.
• Theory: all objects are matter/form.
  • Matter Meaning: "Wood/timber."
  • Philosophical meaning: refers to form.
  • Form meaning philosophical: Definition: defines matter identity.
• Hylomorphism Meaning: everything has matter providing potential/form which provides actuality. For instance: A tree has organic cells (matter) where as has a determining structure (form).
• Everything exists in the 4 causes which account for making matter manifest in change.
• Explanation of the following in the Case of a Tree Connection to Form and Actualization:
  • Material Cause (What it is made of)
    • The tree is made of organic matter: wood, water, and biological cells. Matter alone is only potential—it requires Form to be a tree.
  • Formal Cause (What makes it what it is)
    • The tree has the structure and characteristics of a tree (e.g., roots, branches, leaves) that distinguish it from other plants. The Form gives the tree its identity, shaping the matter into a tree rather than something else.
  • Efficient Cause (How it came to be)
    • The tree grew from a seed, which developed through natural processes like sunlight, water absorption, and biological growth. The process of change (growth) allows the Form to manifest in matter over time.
  • Final Cause (Its purpose or function)
    • The tree's purpose is to grow, reproduce, provide oxygen, and sustain life in its environment. By reaching its Final Cause, the tree fully actualizes its Form, becoming a fully mature tree that serves its natural function.

Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics

• Eudaimonia: highest good through rational activity/virtue which connects instrumental/intrinsic goods.
• Goods:
  • Instrumental Goods: valued for what they lead to i.e wealth, power and pleasure.
  • Intrinsic: Value for a means to another i.e Eudimonia for its own sake.
• The Final Cause/purpose of human life is Eudaimoniato achieve through rational activity and virtue.
• Achieved by the nature of rational being and unlike instrumental goods, which are only means to an end, Eudaimonia is the end itself.

Virtue and Role of Good and Pain

• Moral development requires training ourselves to feel pleasure and pain, our moral character shaped by pleasure/pain.
• Pleasure and pain shape our moral character, and one must align their emotions with reason.

Takeaways

• Instrumental goods are means to an end (e.g., wealth can help us live well but is not the ultimate goal).
• Eudaimonia is the ultimate intrinsic good—the full actualization of human potential, pursued for its own sake. Plato vs Aristole
  • Plato: Rational knowledge of Forms, while Aristotle sees virtue as aligning with reason (Eudaimonia). Platon: Virtue known via reason where as aristole believes in cultivating virtue from habit. Empirical Role: Shows Aristotle sees emperial role vs Rationalism.

Virtue

• Aristotle notes ethics differs from math/physics because it deals with context with our reasoning as such actions are not fix but judgement.

• Virtue: disposition inclined to reason, cultivating a good and rational action. Virtue: involves the golden mean extremes with correct action depending on context.

• Example: ethics differ's in science as it requires practical judgement. - Courage: Deficiency is cowardice whereas the excess is recononless. Aristole mean: Virtue is right and balanced. Virtue of Kindess: Too Kind example Example: Can You Be "Too Kind"? - Kindness is a virtue, but excessive kindness can lead to harmful self-sacrifice or enabling bad behavior. - Virtuous kindness involves wisdom—knowing when to help and when to set boundaries. Deficinency(little kindness

• Compassion is thoughtful and just

  Aristole divides wisom as practical and theoritical
  

Wisdom

• Sophia: Math and physics.
• Reasoning can be acquired and present in children
• Concrns the abstract understanding of the forms.
• Phronesis: ability to see through the middle ground Ethical judgement
• Practice and habituation.
• Balance between extremenes Not a science.
• Phornesis reason
• A persoect to precieve and apply the golden mean in different situations.

Dscartes

• Descartes Sought was a universal agent
• He believes reason is a egalitarian as all can access it equally and Anti dogmatist
• He eliminates other cases for the scientific revolution.

Epistemology. He wanted to see the fundation as it is certainity. Radsicaly doubting beliefs that can survive while seeing if the senses are turstworty Since they are prone to illusion, halluciantion and dreams then they are unreliable

• Evil Demond Arguememnt The movie the matrix is cited saying they live in a illusion machines creatd rather then a dempn

Appearance vs Reality

• Depends on the world and hte apperacne.

• Senses cant explain identity.

• "I think herfoe i am" There is an exisitence there as there is a recption happening with our exsietnc Our mind grasps wxs identity as a thinking thing example: thoughts change contantly. Mind can be expressed as: Affections Volitions

• Suabstance Daulisim exists where min and body are two different existences.

Ideas

• Innatte
• Advent
• Fbarication

God exists. We have perfeft idea od being infinie. Since we cant be perfeft, what exists has to

Catesian cirlce

• Truse clear and distinct ideas because god gave it

Hume

• From scotish philosopher, all knowledge is from experience
• All ideas come from snesory Ex blind cant see color

Simple Ideas

Red hot are eamples

Complicated Ideas

Combination mountain is gold.