Pathophysiology midterm 1 匹配題 (同一份) 總複習

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Questions and Answers

Match the following terms with their definitions:

Etiology = Cause of disease Pathogenesis = Physiological development of disease Morphological changes = Chronic adaptations in cells and tissues Clinical manifestations = Observable consequences of disease

Match the following phases of disease progression with their descriptions:

Latent period = No signs/symptoms between initial injury and first symptoms Prodromal period = First appearance of signs/symptoms Acute period = Peak of signs and symptoms Chronic phase = Long-term changes due to continuous exposure

Match the following types of clinical manifestations with their characteristics:

Signs = Objective observations such as fever or rash Symptoms = Subjective experiences reported by the patient Acute signs = Rapid onset of observable indicators Chronic symptoms = Long-lasting subjective complaints

Match the following factors affecting pathogenesis with their descriptions:

Time = Duration of exposure to the injury Quantity = Amount of exposure to harmful factors Location = Area of the body where injury originated Response = Body's reaction to the initial injury Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their corresponding descriptions:

Normal range = Average values within a standard deviation Abnormal = Physiological values outside normal range Physical assessment = Evaluating observable health indicators Disease state = Interplay of causes, injury, and responses Signup and view all the answers

Match the cell injury types to their definitions:

Hypoxic injury = Reduction in oxygen supply leading to cell damage Reperfusion injury = Damage after blood flow returns to tissue Anoxia = Complete loss of oxygen supply Ischemia = Reduction in blood flow to tissues Signup and view all the answers

Match the stages of cell metabolism to their outcomes:

Glycolysis = Produces 2 ATP and occurs in cytosol Citric acid cycle = Produces 2 ATP in mitochondria Oxidative phosphorylation = Produces 32 ATP and requires O2 Cellular respiration = Overall process producing metabolic energy Signup and view all the answers

Match the manifestations of cell injury to their descriptions:

Atrophy = Cells decrease in size and intracellular content Hypertrophy = Cells increase in size without increasing number Hyperplasia = Increase in cell number with no size change Metaplasia = Replacement of differentiated cells with lesser ones Signup and view all the answers

Match the processes of cell transport:

Passive transport = Movement without energy use Active transport = Movement requiring energy Facilitated diffusion = Mechanism using carriers for transport Osmosis = Water movement across membranes Signup and view all the answers

Match the causes of free radical formation:

UV light = Source of energy leading to free radicals Metabolism = Process contributing to reactive oxygen species Smoking = Behavior introducing harmful radicals Air pollution = Environmental factor causing oxidative stress Signup and view all the answers

Match the cell adaptations to their examples:

Atrophy = Decreased liver cell size due to malnutrition Hypertrophy = Enlarged cardiac muscle due to increased demand Hyperplasia = Increased number of skin cells from irritation Metaplasia = Squamous cell replacement in smokers' lungs Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of cell injury to their effects:

Lipid peroxidation = Damage to membrane lipids causing rigidity DNA damage = Alteration in genetic material leading to mutations Disruption of polypeptide chains = Effects on protein structure and function Accumulation of substances = Overload of materials within cells Signup and view all the answers

Match the examples of cell injury to their types:

Fatty liver = Lipid accumulation due to alcohol consumption Tay-Sachs disease = Enzyme deficiency leading to lipid storage Anoxia = Cell damage due to oxygen deprivation Reperfusion injury = Inflammation causing tissue damage post-ischemia Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of cellular transport mechanisms:

Simple diffusion = Movement across membranes without assistance Facilitated diffusion = Utilizes proteins for transport Primary active transport = Energy-driven transport against gradient Secondary active transport = Couples solute movement with another process Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms related to stress responses in cells:

Low level stressors = Do not cause immediate injury but alter function Mild persistent stress = Can lead to adaptation of cell function Hypoxia = Reduced oxygen levels causing metabolic slowdown Cellular injury = Can lead to inflammation and tissue damage Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of injuries to their definitions:

Extrinsic = Injuries caused by external agents Intrinsic = Injuries due to internal factors Idiopathic = Unknown causes of a condition Iatrogenic = Conditions caused by healthcare interventions Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of cellular injury with their causes:

Extrinsic - Inanimate = Physical agent induced injuries Extrinsic - Animate = Injuries caused by infectious agents Intrinsic - Metabolic = Disorders due to metabolic dysfunctions Intrinsic - Degenerative = Injuries related to aging or wear and tear Signup and view all the answers

Match the laboratory methods with their uses:

UA = Fecal analysis Blood culture = Identification of infection Tissue diagnosis = Determine cancerous vs normal tissue Electrocardiograms = Assess heart structure and function Signup and view all the answers

Match the factors influencing water balance with their descriptions:

ADH = Regulates water retention by kidneys Osmolytes = Sodium and potassium essential for cell function Renin-angiotensin system = Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance Water loss through urine = Excretion of excess water from the body Signup and view all the answers

Match the components of fluid distribution with their characteristics:

ECF = Greater concentration of Na, Ca, Cl- ICF = Greater concentration of K, Mg, Proteins Total body water = 60% of body weight on average Dehydration in females = Higher fat percentage leads to water loss Signup and view all the answers

Match the causes of edema with their explanations:

Decreased plasma oncotic pressure = Loss of albumin reducing pulling force Increased capillary permeability = Fluid leakage during inflammation Increased capillary blood pressure = Hypertension pushing fluid out Lymphatic obstruction = Prevents drainage, leading to lymphedema Signup and view all the answers

Match the parameters of maintaining cellular homeostasis:

Cell volume = Balance of water and osmolytes Electrolyte balance = Na+/K+ ATPase pump activity Maintaining pH = Essential for enzyme function Cell metabolism = Generates heat and ATP for cellular processes Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of diagnostic methods with their details:

Clinical methods = Physical assessments and patient interviews Laboratory analysis = Blood counts and chemistry tests Differential diagnosis = Long list of potential diseases Radiography = Imaging to view internal structures Signup and view all the answers

Match the physiological processes with their roles in homeostasis:

Vasoconstriction = Reduces urine output and increases water retention Increased water consumption = Stimulated by thirst mechanism Losses through feces = Normal excretion of waste High intake of sodium = Requires balancing potassium levels Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of pressures affecting fluid movement in capillaries:

Capillary blood pressure = Favors ultrafiltration of fluids Capillary oncotic pressure = Favors reabsorption of fluids Interstitial hydrostatic pressure = Exerts pressure against capillaries Interstitial oncotic pressure = Affects ultrafiltration during inflammation Signup and view all the answers

Match the states of body fluid distribution:

Intravascular fluid = Fluid within blood vessels Interstitial fluid = Fluid between cells Intracellular fluid = Fluid within cells Third space accumulation = Fluid in body cavities lined with membranes Signup and view all the answers

Match the definitions with their medical terminology:

Edema = Swelling due to fluid accumulation Hydrostatic pressure = Pressure exerted by fluids in capillaries Oncotic pressure = Pressure exerted by proteins in blood Lymphedema = Swelling due to lymphatic obstruction Signup and view all the answers

Match the mechanisms of fluid regulation in the body:

Albumin = Maintains plasma oncotic pressure Renin secretion = Stimulated by low blood pressure Na+/K+ ATPase = Maintains ionic gradients across the membrane Vascular injury = Causes increased capillary permeability Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of cellular responses with their descriptions:

Impaired tissue function = Result of cellular injury Normal function interdependence = Cells rely on systems functioning well Response to injury = Cellular changes that occur due to damage Homeostasis = Maintaining stable internal conditions Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of diagnostic tools with their based functions:

Serology = Detects antibodies in the blood Blood chemistry = Analyzes electrolytes and gases Electrocardiograms = Monitors heart's electrical activity Fecal analysis = Assesses digestive function Signup and view all the answers

Match the following fluid imbalance conditions with their definitions:

Hypernatremia = Elevated sodium levels due to inadequate water intake Hyponatremia = Decreased sodium levels due to excess water Hypochloremia = Deficit of chloride often accompanying sodium loss Hyperchloremia = Excess of chloride seen with sodium or bicarbonate alterations Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of acid-base imbalances with their causes:

Respiratory acidosis = Hypoventilation leading to CO2 retention Respiratory alkalosis = Hyperventilation leading to CO2 depletion Metabolic acidosis = Increased noncarbonic acids contributing to low pH Metabolic alkalosis = Excess loss of noncarbonic acids or excess bicarbonate intake Signup and view all the answers

Match these electrolyte balances with their effects on potassium levels:

Acidosis = Potassium moves out of the cell Alkalosis = Potassium moves into the cell Increased insulin = Potassium moves into the cell Catecholamines = Effects depend on adrenergic type Signup and view all the answers

Match the following buffer systems with their components:

Bicarbonate buffer = HCO3- / H2CO3 Hemoglobin buffer = Hb- / HHb Protein buffer = Pr- / HPr Phosphate buffer = HPO4- / H2PO4- Signup and view all the answers

Match the following conditions with their corresponding compensatory mechanisms:

Respiratory acidosis = Increased bicarbonate retention by the kidneys Respiratory alkalosis = Decreased bicarbonate reabsorption by the kidneys Metabolic acidosis = Hyperventilation to decrease CO2 levels Metabolic alkalosis = Hypoventilation to retain CO2 levels Signup and view all the answers

Match the following definitions with the terms used in fluid balance:

Isotonic alterations = Proportional changes in TBW with electrolytes Hypertonic alterations = Elevated osmolarity in ECF Hypotonic alterations = Reduced osmolarity in ECF ECF volume depletion = Loss of plasma and electrolytes equally Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms with their descriptions regarding renal regulation:

Aldosterone = Hormone maintaining potassium balance systemically Na/K ATPase pumps = Regulate intracellular potassium levels Water deficit = Consequence of inadequate water intake SIADH = Condition leading to water excess by decreased formation of urine Signup and view all the answers

Match the following acids and bases with their roles:

Acid = Compound that donates H+ to a solution Base = Compound that absorbs H+ from a solution Carbonic acid = Formed from CO2 and water Bicarbonate = Base that neutralizes excess acids Signup and view all the answers

Match the following potassium level shifts with the influencing factors:

Insulin = Moves potassium into the cell Catecholamines = B2 adrenergics move potassium into the cell Acidosis = Moves potassium out of the cell Alkalosis = Moves potassium into the cell Signup and view all the answers

Match the following acid-base compensation types with their conditions:

Uncompensated = Only primary disturbance present Partially compensated = Some compensation but pH remains abnormal Fully compensated = pH returned to normal due to compensation Metabolic compensation = Renal adjustments responding to respiratory issues Signup and view all the answers

Match the symptoms with their corresponding fluid imbalance condition:

Excess IV fluids = Isotonic volume excess Street dehydration = Isotonic volume depletion Excess sodium = Hypernatremia Excess fluid retention = Hyponatremia Signup and view all the answers

Match the following respiration effects with the acid-base status:

Increased respiratory rate = Decreases PCO2, increases pH Decreased respiratory rate = Increases PCO2, decreases pH Hypoventilation = Causes CO2 retention, acidosis Hyperventilation = Causes CO2 loss, alkalosis Signup and view all the answers

Match the following causes of volume excess with their descriptions:

Hormonal imbalances = Causes hypersecretion of aldosterone Excess IV fluids = Leads to swollen tissues and fluid retention Congestive heart failure = Results in inadequate circulation and volume overload Kidney failure = Impairment of fluid excretion and retention Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts of pH with their interpretations:

Neutral pH (7) = Arterial blood and normal bodily function Acidic pH (<7) = Increased H+ concentration, acidosis Alkaline pH (>7) = Decreased H+ concentration, alkalosis Logarithmic scale = pH changes exponentially with H+ concentration Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of necrosis with their definitions:

Coagulative necrosis = General tissue death Liquefactive necrosis = Partial liquefaction of tissues Caseous necrosis = Related to tuberculosis infection Fat necrosis = Necrosis in fat-rich tissues like pancreas Signup and view all the answers

Match the function of the nervous system components:

Spinal cord = Transmits signals to and from the brain Cerebellum = Coordinates learned motor movements Cerebrum = Responsible for cognition and executive function Diencephalon = Regulates temperature and appetite Signup and view all the answers

Match the following parts of the brain with their roles in language processing:

Wernicke’s area = Processes auditory input for language Broca’s area = Produces intelligible speech Angular gyrus = Combines multiple senses for language Receptive aphasia = Difficulty understanding speech Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of cell with its function in the CNS:

Astrocytes = Create blood-brain barrier Oligodendrocytes = Provide myelination to axons Ependymal cells = Form walls of cerebral ventricles Glial cells = Supportive cells in the nervous system Signup and view all the answers

Match the symptoms to their corresponding aphasia type:

Expressive aphasia = Can understand but cannot express Receptive aphasia = Language output is nonsensical Non-fluent aphasia = Broken language and difficulty in speaking Fluent aphasia = Inability to comprehend speech Signup and view all the answers

Match the parts of the ventricular system with their locations:

Right lateral ventricle = Located in the right cerebral hemisphere Left lateral ventricle = Located in the left cerebral hemisphere Third ventricle = Located in the diencephalon Fourth ventricle = Located in the hindbrain Signup and view all the answers

Match the functions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):

Buoyancy = Keeps brain buoyant and cushioned Nutrient transport = Delivers essential nutrients to the brain Waste removal = Removes waste products from brain Protection = Acts as a shock absorber for the brain Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of necrosis with their key characteristics:

Caseous necrosis = Associated with tuberculosis Liquefactive necrosis = Tissue becomes liquid Coagulative necrosis = Cell structure preserved despite cell death Fat necrosis = Involves saponification of fatty tissues Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to its constituents against plasma:

Sodium in CSF = Less than in plasma Potassium in CSF = Way less than in plasma Proteins in CSF = Way less than in plasma Amino acids in CSF = Way less in plasma Signup and view all the answers

Match these descriptions to their corresponding parts of the brain:

Cerebellum = Controls balance and coordination Brain stem = Manages vital life functions like heartbeat Cerebrum = Involved in higher cognitive functions Diencephalon = Regulates body temperature and appetite Signup and view all the answers

Match the brain's protective structures:

Dura mater = Outer layer of the meninges Arachnoid membrane = Middle layer with web-like structure Pia mater = Inner layer closely adherent to the brain Subarachnoid space = Contains cerebrospinal fluid Signup and view all the answers

Match these conditions that can trigger apoptosis:

Viral infection = Can induce programmed cell death DNA damage = Leads to recognition of potential cellular danger Cell stress = Facilitates response including apoptosis Induction of immune cells = Can prompt abnormal cells to undergo apoptosis Signup and view all the answers

Match the types of necrosis with their developmental stages:

Coagulative necrosis = Occurs after ischemia Liquefactive necrosis = Typically seen in brain injuries Caseous necrosis = Results from chronic inflammatory conditions Fat necrosis = Associated with enzymatic breakdown of fat Signup and view all the answers

Match the following nervous system functions with their locations:

Heart rate control = Brain stem Learned motor skills = Cerebellum Language processing = Cerebrum Temperature regulation = Diencephalon Signup and view all the answers

Match the following areas with their specific language functions:

Broca’s area = Involved in speech production Wernicke’s area = Involved in language comprehension Angular gyrus = Integrates sensory information for language Language networks = Connect Wernicke's and Broca's areas Signup and view all the answers

Match the following parts of the spinal cord with their functions:

Dorsal Horn = Contains sensory interneurons and receives afferent input Ventral Horn = Contains motor neuron cell bodies sending efferent signals Lateral Horn = Contains autonomic efferent neuron cell bodies White Matter = Contains myelinated axon fibers transmitting signals up and down Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of neural pathways with their characteristics:

Ascending Tracts = Carry sensory information to the brain Descending Tracts = Carry motor information from the brain Efferent Signals = Signals that travel away from the central nervous system Afferent Signals = Signals that travel towards the central nervous system Signup and view all the answers

Match the following reflex types with their examples:

Knee Deep Tendon Reflex (DTR) = A spinal reflex that does not require brain input Pain Withdrawal Reflex = A reflex that involves sensory input to the brain Paw Withdrawal Reflex = An example of a spinal reflex in animals Stretch Reflex = A reflex that opposes rapid muscle stretching Signup and view all the answers

Match the following autonomic nervous system components with their roles:

Sympathetic Nervous System = Prepares the body for fight or flight response Parasympathetic Nervous System = Maintains baseline functions of the body Preganglionic Neuron = First neuron in the two-neuron chain in the ANS Postganglionic Neuron = Neuron that extends from the ganglion to the target organ Signup and view all the answers

Match the following neurotransmitter systems with their primary origin or area:

Norepinephrine System = Locus Coeruleus Serotonin System = Raphe Nuclei Dopamine System = Substantia Nigra Acetylcholine System = Pontomesencephalotegmental Complex Signup and view all the answers

Match the following structures with their locations in the spinal cord:

Sympathetic Chain Ganglia = Runs alongside the vertebral column Autonomic Efferent Neurons = Located in the Lateral Horn Dorsal Root Ganglia = Home of sensory neuron cell bodies Ventral Root = Exits the spinal cord carrying motor signals Signup and view all the answers

Match the following behaviors with their corresponding neurotransmitter systems:

Attention = Norepinephrine System Mood Regulation = Serotonin System Voluntary Motor Movement = Dopamine System Cognitive Processing = Acetylcholine System Signup and view all the answers

Match the following parts of the brain with their respective functions related to neurotransmitter systems:

Amygdala = Determines focus related to danger Prefrontal Cortex = Inhibits distractions for focus Hippocampus = Short-term memory Ventral Tegmental Area = Reward pathway Signup and view all the answers

Match the following cranial nerves with their functions in the autonomic nervous system:

Cranial Nerve III = Involved in pupil constriction Cranial Nerve VII = Controls lacrimal and salivary glands Cranial Nerve IX = Innervates the parotid salivary gland Cranial Nerve X = Major contributor to the parasympathetic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of neurons with their functions:

Motor Neurons = Carry signals from CNS to muscles Sensory Neurons = Transmit sensory information to CNS Interneurons = Connect afferent and efferent neurons within the spinal cord Autonomic Neurons = Control involuntary functions in organs Signup and view all the answers

Match the following cranial nerves with their primary functions:

Olfactory Nerve I = Sense of smell Optic Nerve II = Vision Vagus Nerve X = Parasympathetic control Hypoglossal Nerve XII = Tongue movement Signup and view all the answers

Match the following regions of leaky BBB with their associated functions:

Median Eminence = Hormonal regulation Posterior Pituitary = Hormone secretion Pineal Gland = Regulates sleep cycles Area Postrema = Nausea and vomiting response Signup and view all the answers

Match the following spinal cord injuries with their effects:

Injury at T6 = Results in paralysis below the injury Injury at L1 = May affect bladder and anal sphincter control Injury at C5 = Can affect arm and hand motor function Injury at S2-S4 = Impairs pelvic organs' autonomic functions Signup and view all the answers

Match the following neurotransmitter systems with their effects:

Norepinephrine = Sleep/wake cycle Serotonin = Mood and temperature control Dopamine = Motivation and reward Acetylcholine = Cognitive processing Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of the autonomic nervous system with their characteristics:

Sympathetic System = Has preganglionic neurons in the lateral horn T1-L3 Parasympathetic System = Has preganglionic neurons in the brain and sacral spinal cord Epinephrine = Hormone released by adrenal medulla during sympathetic stimulation Ganglia = Collection of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS Signup and view all the answers

Match the following autonomic responses with their corresponding systems:

Fight or Flight = Sympathetic Nervous System response Rest and Digest = Parasympathetic Nervous System response Cardiac Muscle Control = Target of the autonomic nervous system Visceral Organ Function = Regulated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems Signup and view all the answers

Match the following spinal nerve functions with their corresponding terms:

Ventral Root = Motor function Dorsal Root = Sensory function C1 Nerve = All sensory Dermatome Map = Skin sensation regions Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to the peripheral nervous system with their descriptions:

Cranial Nerves = 12 pairs extending from the brain Spinal Nerves = 31 pairs extending from the spine Motor Nerves = Control skeletal muscles Sensory Nerves = Convey information to spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

Match the following neurotransmitter systems with their behaviors influenced:

Norepinephrine = Regulates attention and arousal Serotonin = Influences mood and aggression Dopamine = Coordinates reward and pleasure Acetylcholine = Facilitates learning and memory Signup and view all the answers

Match the following characteristics of neurotransmitter systems with their corresponding description:

Norepinephrine System = Widespread projections and modulation Serotonin System = Affects mood and wakefulness Dopamine System = Key in movement and reward pathways Acetylcholine System = Involves sleep and cognitive processing Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of cells with their functions in the central nervous system:

Astrocytes = Support and maintain neurotransmitter balance Microglia = Brain's immune defense Oligodendrocytes = Myelinate axons in CNS Ependymal Cells = Line the ventricles of the brain Signup and view all the answers

Match the following features of the blood-brain barrier to their descriptions:

Basement Membrane = Structural support for cells Circumventricular Organs = Regions with leaky BBB Endfeet = Astrocyte extensions influencing BBB Meninges = Cover and protect the CNS Signup and view all the answers

Match the following conditions with their effects on neurotransmitter systems:

ADHD = Strattera acts on norepinephrine Ecstasy = Floods and modifies serotonin reuptake Cholinergic Toxicity = Delirium due to ACh blockade Mood Disorders = Serotonin system interactions Signup and view all the answers

Match the following sensory functions with their associated cranial nerves or systems:

Proprioception = Vestibulochochlear VIII Taste = Glossopharyngeal IX Balance = Vestibulochochlear VIII Smell = Olfactory I Signup and view all the answers

Match the following neurotransmitters with their associated system:

Acetylcholine = Parasympathetic system Norepinephrine = Sympathetic system Epinephrine = Adrenal medulla Dopamine = Not typically associated with ANS Signup and view all the answers

Match the following receptors with their primary locations:

Alpha 1 = Smooth muscle of vasculature Beta 1 = Cardiac muscle Beta 2 = Bronchioles in lungs Muscarinic = Target cells of parasympathetic system Signup and view all the answers

Match the following endocrine glands with their primary functions:

Hypothalamus = Releases hormones into bloodstream Pituitary gland = Master gland controlling other hormones Thyroid gland = Regulates metabolism Adrenal glands = Stress response and metabolism Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormone types with their characteristics:

Peptide hormones = Chains of amino acids Steroid hormones = Derived from cholesterol Amino acid-derived hormones = Modified single amino acids Water-soluble hormones = Move freely in bloodstream Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormone actions with their corresponding mechanisms:

Cortisol = Alters channel permeability Insulin = Activates enzyme activity Estrogen = Causes formation of new proteins ADH = Increases water reabsorption in kidneys Signup and view all the answers

Match the following systems with their overall effect on target organs:

Sympathetic = Increases heart rate Parasympathetic = Decreases heart rate Adrenal medulla = Releases hormones into bloodstream Autonomic tone = Balances sympathetic and parasympathetic effects Signup and view all the answers

Match the following endocrine structures with their classifications:

Pituitary gland = Central endocrine gland Thyroid gland = Peripheral endocrine gland Kidney = Mixed endocrine structure Adrenal medulla = Dedicated endocrine structure Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormone responses with their triggers:

Increased HR and contraction strength = Beta 1 receptor activation Vasodilation in bronchioles = Beta 2 receptor activation Vasoconstriction in blood vessels = Alpha 1 receptor activation Increased water retention = ADH action on kidneys Signup and view all the answers

Match the following effects of hormonal action with the corresponding hormones:

Cortisol = Mental agility increase under stress Insulin = Stimulates fat storage Testosterone = Promotes growth during puberty ADH = Reduces urine output Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of the autonomic nervous system with their roles:

Preganglionic neurons = Release ACh to nicotinic receptors Postganglionic neurons (sympathetic) = Release NE to target organs Postganglionic neurons (parasympathetic) = Release ACh to muscarinic receptors Adrenal medulla = Releases hormones into the bloodstream Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormones with their primary function:

TSH = Stimulates thyroid hormone production ACTH = Stimulates cortisol production Growth Hormone = Stimulates growth and metabolism Prolactin = Promotes milk production Signup and view all the answers

Match the following key terms with their descriptions:

Cholinergic = Anything that releases ACh Adrenergic = Anything that releases NE Autonomic tone = Volume of stimulation to target organs Vasoconstriction = Narrowing of blood vessels Signup and view all the answers

Match the following cells with their function:

Follicular cells = Synthesize thyroid hormones Parafollicular cells = Release calcitonin Somatotrophs = Release growth hormone Adrenal medulla cells = Produce catecholamines Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormone interactions with the correct type:

Steroid hormones = Cross plasma membrane freely Peptide hormones = Bind to membrane receptors Lipophilic hormones = Affect gene expression Water-soluble hormones = Do not cross the membrane Signup and view all the answers

Match the following feedback types with their descriptions:

Negative Feedback = Hormone level regulates more production Positive Feedback = Increase in a hormone triggers more release Hierarchical Control = Sequential release of hormones from glands Circadian Rhythms = Daily fluctuations in hormone levels Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormones with their consolidation of functions:

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) = Increase metabolic rate Epinephrine = Fight or flight response Aldosterone = Regulates sodium balance Cortisol = Stress response and metabolism Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormones with their secretion trigger:

GHRH = Stimulates growth hormone release Somatostatin = Inhibits growth hormone release TSH = Stimulated by TRH from the hypothalamus Cortisol = Triggered by ACTH from anterior pituitary Signup and view all the answers

Match the following receptors with their respective effects:

Nicotinic receptors = Facilitate ACh action in autonomic ganglia Alpha receptors = Constrict blood vessels Beta 2 receptors = Dilate bronchioles Beta 1 receptors = Increase heart contractility Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormone sources with their primary actions:

Epinephrine = Acts as both hormone and neurotransmitter Insulin = Promotes glucose uptake and storage ADH = Regulates body water balance Estrogen = Stimulates female reproductive development Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of adrenal hormones with their source:

Cortisol = Produced in the zona fasciculata Aldosterone = Produced in the zona glomerulosa Catecholamines = Produced in the adrenal medulla Sex hormones = Produced in the zona reticularis Signup and view all the answers

Match the following effects of cortisol with their description:

Elevated blood glucose = Breaks down muscle and glycogen Vasoconstriction = Increases blood pressure control Anti-inflammatory = Suppresses immune responses Increased excitability = Enhances brain alertness and speed Signup and view all the answers

Match the gland with its primary release products:

Hypothalamus = Releases TRH and GHRH Anterior Pituitary = Releases TSH and ACTH Thyroid Gland = Releases T3 and T4 Adrenal Cortex = Releases glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids Signup and view all the answers

Match the following mechanisms of hormone action:

Thyroid hormones = Bind to nuclear receptors affecting gene expression Vasopressin = Regulates water balance Oxytocin = Stimulates uterine contractions Calcitonin = Lowers blood calcium levels Signup and view all the answers

Match the hormonal regulation type with its example:

Negative feedback = Thyroid hormone inhibits TSH release Positive feedback = Oxytocin during childbirth Hierarchical control = Hypothalamus releases TRH to anterior pituitary Circadian regulation = Cortisol peaks at waking time Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormones with their source gland:

Thyroid hormones (T3/T4) = Thyroid gland Vasopressin = Posterior pituitary Luteinizing Hormone (LH) = Anterior pituitary Epinephrine = Adrenal medulla Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Introduction to Pathophysiology and Cellular Basis of Disease

Disease is dynamic, involving an interplay between cause, injury, and the body's response to that injury.
Initial signs of disease manifest when physical parameters fall outside the normal range.
Etiology refers to the cause of disease, while pathogenesis describes the physiological development of the disease process.
Factors affecting pathogenesis include time, quantity of exposure, and the location of injury.
Morphological changes arise from chronic injuries, leading to observable clinical manifestations (e.g., damage to pancreas results in diabetes mellitus).

Clinical Manifestations

Observable consequences of disease are categorized into signs (measurable and objective, e.g., rash, fever) and symptoms (subjective experiences reported by the patient, e.g., nausea, pain).
Critical stages in the disease progression include:
- Latent period: Between injury and onset of symptoms.
- Prodromal period: First appearance of symptoms.
- Acute period: Peak of symptoms, followed by recovery or chronic phase.

Causes of Disease

Extrinsic injuries: Induced by inanimate (physical agents, chemical exposure) or animate (infectious organisms) factors.
Intrinsic injuries: Include inherited, congenital, metabolic, degenerative, and immunologic causes.
Idiopathic conditions lack a known cause.

Cellular Function and Homeostasis

Body functions depend on specialized cells organized into tissues and organs, requiring interdependent cellular responses to maintain functionality.
Maintaining cellular homeostasis involves regulating:
- Cell volume via water and osmolyte balance, particularly sodium and potassium.
- Electrolyte levels controlled by the Renin-angiotensin system.
- pH levels critical for enzyme function and metabolic processes.

Fluid Balance and Edema

Total body water (TBW) generally accounts for about 60% of body weight, varying with age and body fat percentage.
Edema can result from decreased plasma oncotic pressure (e.g., low albumin levels), increased capillary permeability, or lymphatic obstructions.
Starling forces determine fluid movement across capillaries: balances between capillary blood pressure and osmotic pressures.

Acid-Base Balance

Acids donate H+ ions; bases absorb them. pH is measured on a scale from 0 to 14, indicating acidity or alkalinity.
Major buffer systems, like bicarbonate and hemoglobin, help stabilize pH levels.
The lungs manage carbon dioxide levels; kidneys control bicarbonate and hydrogen ion concentration.
Conditions of acidosis or alkalosis can occur due to respiratory or metabolic imbalances, with compensatory mechanisms involving opposite organ systems.

Cellular Metabolism

Three steps of cellular metabolism produce ATP: glycolysis, citric acid cycle (Krebs), and oxidative phosphorylation.
Different transport mechanisms, including passive and active transport, regulate cellular materials.

Cellular Injury and Adaptation

Cellular responses to injury can include adaptive changes (e.g., atrophy, hypertrophy) or irreversible injury leading to necrosis.
Types of necrosis include coagulative, liquefactive, and caseous necrosis depending on tissue death characteristics.
Apoptosis or programmed cell death occurs in response to certain triggers, such as viral infections or DNA damage.

Nervous System Function

Major divisions of the central nervous system (CNS) include the spinal cord, brain stem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum.
The somatosensory map aids in understanding how sensory inputs are processed, especially for those who are blind, highlighting brain plasticity.
Key areas for language processing exist in the brain, like Wernicke’s area (language comprehension) and Broca’s area (speech production). Damage to these areas results in aphasias, affecting communication capabilities.### Understanding Neurological Concepts
"Can Understand, Cannot Express": A condition often associated with strokes affecting specific brain areas.
Brodmann’s Areas: Specific regions in the brain linked to various body functions.

Central Nervous System (CNS) Anatomy

Glial Cells: Non-neuronal cells providing support in the nervous system. Types include:
- Astrocytes: Form the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by surrounding capillaries.
- Oligodendrocytes: Responsible for myelination of CNS axons.
- Ependymal Cells: Line cerebral ventricles and communicate with CSF.

Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Meninges: Protective membranes (dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater) that encase the brain.
Cerebral Ventricles: Produce and secrete CSF, crucial for cushioning the brain.
- Choroid Plexus: Specialized tissue in ventricles responsible for CSF production.
CSF Composition: Lower sodium and potassium compared to plasma, influencing neuronal excitability and seizure potential.

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

Structure: Comprised of tight junctions between endothelial cells, a basement membrane, and astrocyte end-feet.
Function: Filters substances entering the brain; allows selective permeability for water, O2, and lipids, while tightly regulating ions.

Neurotransmitter Systems

Norepinephrine System: Originates from the locus coeruleus; influences wakefulness, attention, and regulated by inhibition.
Serotonin System: Arises from the raphe nuclei; regulates mood, sleep, temperature control, and motor excitation.
Dopamine System: Key circuits include:
- Substantia Nigra: Modifies voluntary motor control.
- Ventral Tegmental Area: Involved in reward and motivation.
Acetylcholine (ACh): Plays a role in sleep/wake states and cognitive processing.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs involving both sensory and motor functions; specific nerves dedicated to particular sensory modalities.
Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs that control both sensory and motor functions; dorsal roots carry sensory input, while ventral roots transmit motor commands.

Spinal Reflexes and Cord Anatomy

Reflex Arcs: Involve afferent sensory neurons and efferent motor neurons for quick responses; can operate independently of brain input.
Ascending/Descending Tracts: Ascend via dorsal roots (sensory) and descend via ventral roots (motor); white matter comprises myelinated axons, gray matter contains neuron cell bodies.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Divisions: Parasympathetic (rest and digest) vs. sympathetic (fight or flight); both systems use two-neuron pathways to reach target organs.
Preganglionic Neurons: Sympathetic originates in the spinal cord (T1-L3), while parasympathetic arises from cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, X) and sacral spinal cord.

Neurotransmitters of the ANS

Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine play crucial roles in mediating responses for both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems through various receptor types.

Endocrine System Overview

Function: Hormonal signaling is wireless, impacting multiple body functions by binding to specific receptors.
Types of Hormones: Include peptide/protein, amino acid-derived, and steroid hormones, each with distinct production and transport mechanisms.
Central and Peripheral Endocrine Glands: Central glands (hypothalamus, pituitary) play vital roles in hormone release; peripheral glands serve dedicated endocrine functions.

Hormone Actions and Effects

Hormonal Action: Includes altering channel permeability, second-messenger systems, and gene activation to elicit physiological responses.
ADH (Vasopressin): Important for water reabsorption in kidneys and vasoconstriction effects.

These notes highlight crucial neurological, physiological, and hormonal functions essential for understanding the body's systems.### Hormonal Functions and Types

Hormones, like T3 and T4, can act both as hormones and neurotransmitters depending on their release method.
T3 is the only active form of thyroid hormone; T4 requires the removal of an iodine atom to become active.
Thyroid hormones are lipid-soluble and can cross cell membranes to influence gene expression, particularly those regulating energy consumption and metabolic rate.
Hyperthyroidism can induce anxiety in affected individuals.

Steroid Hormone Synthesis

Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol, which can be dietary or produced by the liver.
Cholesterol, being a fat, is transported in the blood via lipoproteins (LDL) and binds to receptors on endocrine cells.
Inside endocrine cells, LDL is internalized and metabolized into pregnenolone, which can be converted into various hormones like aldosterone, cortisol, estradiol, and testosterone, with each step requiring specific enzymes.

Peptide Hormones and Signaling

Peptide hormones cannot cross cell membranes; they activate second messenger pathways such as cAMP or Ca²⁺, initiating cellular responses.
In contrast, steroids directly enter the nucleus to influence gene expression, as seen with thyroid hormones that increase metabolism via proteins like Na/K ATP pumps.

Hormonal Secretion Control

Hormonal secretion is regulated by negative feedback; the level of hormone in the bloodstream determines if additional production is necessary.
Hierarchical control involves a sequence where one hormone regulates the release of another from different glands.
For example, the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary, which then communicates with peripheral glands like the thyroid.

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Interaction

The posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus and releases vasopressin and oxytocin directly into capillaries.
The anterior pituitary functions as a true endocrine gland, releasing several hormones like TSH, ACTH, prolactin, growth hormone, LH, and FSH, controlled by hormones from the hypothalamus.

Growth Hormone (GH) Regulation

GH release is regulated by hormones from the hypothalamus, specifically GHRH, which stimulates GH release, and somatostatin, which inhibits it.
GH is primarily released during non-REM sleep and follows a circadian rhythm, with higher pulses occurring at night.
Quality and quantity of sleep significantly influence GH release, affecting overall health.

Thyroid Gland Anatomy and Function

The thyroid gland contains follicular cells that synthesize thyroid hormones, stored in colloid, and can regulate metabolic rate and sympathetic activity.
Parafollicular (C) cells in the thyroid release calcitonin, which regulates calcium levels in the body.
T3, derived from T4 through enzymatic conversion, binds to thyroid hormone receptors to influence energy-consuming processes like Na+/K+ pump activity and gluconeogenesis.

Adrenal Gland Structure and Hormones

The adrenal glands, located atop each kidney, consist of two main regions: the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex.
The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines (mainly epinephrine and norepinephrine) as part of the sympathetic nervous system response.
The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones, divided into three zones: zona glomerulosa (mineralocorticoids), zona fasciculata (glucocorticoids), and zona reticularis (sex hormones).

Effects of Cortisol

Cortisol, a glucocorticoid synthesized in the zona fasciculata, mediates the stress response by elevating blood glucose levels.
It promotes the breakdown of muscle and bone to release free amino acids and calcium, respectively, while also preventing insulin from lowering blood glucose.
Additionally, cortisol enhances sodium retention, potassium loss, and vasoconstriction, contributing to blood pressure regulation, while serving anti-inflammatory functions and increasing brain excitability for quick responses.

Cortisol Secretion Patterns

Cortisol levels are lowest in the evening and peak just before waking, aiding the body's natural wake-up process.

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This quiz explores the fundamental concepts of pathophysiology, including the definition and dynamics of disease. It delves into how diseases manifest through the interplay of various factors and the importance of recognizing disease states through clinical signs and tests. Assess your understanding of these foundational principles and their implications in healthcare.