Introduction to past, present, and future Biotechnology

• Biotechnology includes investigating its uses and applications in the past, present, and future
• This includes analyzing the social implications and ethical uses of biotechnology, researching future directions, evaluating potential benefits to society, and assessing changes to Earth's biodiversity

Definition of Biotechnology

• Biotechnology is manipulating living organisms or their parts to develop new products or processes
• The purpose is to improve human health and society

Past Examples of Biotechnology

• Selective breeding
• Yoghurt/cheese fermentation
• Antibiotics and vaccinations

Artificial Selection

• Artificial selection is when humans purposely select organisms to breed based on desired characteristics
• Examples include productive food crops, champion racehorses, colorful flowers, and prize-winning pedigree dogs

Selective Breeding vs Genetic Engineering

• Selective breeding uses existing genes in a species and natural breeding processes
• In genetic engineering, an organism's genome is directly changed in a lab

How Selective Breeding Works

• Parents with favorable traits are bred to produce offspring with desirable traits
• Selective breeding increases the chance of passing on favorable traits, particularly with repeated breeding over generations
• Parents can share the same trait or have different favorable traits (high milk volume & creamy milk)

Examples of Selective Breeding in Agriculture

• Modern watermelons have a bright red and juicy interior, with seeds often removed by preventing pollination
• The melons of the 17th century may have had seeds arranged in swirly geometric patterns
• Modern bananas are tastier than the first bananas
• Corn is now 1000 times bigger and easier to grow and peel; the early form was first domesticated around 7000 BC and tasted like a raw potato

Advantages of Artificial Selection

• Higher profits for farmers due to selecting desirable traits
• Increased milk production and quality increase market value
• Reduced economic loss from selecting drought/disease-resistant crops
• Higher quality products in animals and plants

Disadvantages of Artificial Selection

• Some hybrid animals may exhibit traits that cause discomfort
• Teacup pigs are inbred, can have short snouts causing respiratory issues
• It’s time consuming and effort is required to select the right mates, enclose animals, wait for offspring, and then have the offspring mature

Long-term Reduction in Genetic Diversity from Selective Breeding

• Breeding desirable traits can lead to new characteristics
• Continuous selection of these traits reduces biodiversity
• A sudden environmental change can threaten the survival of species

Plasmids

• Plasmids are small DNA molecules that reproduce quickly in bacteria
• They act as vehicles to introduce foreign DNA into bacteria

Restriction Enzymes

• They cleave DNA into fragments at specific sites (restriction sites)
• Each type cuts DNA at a particular sequence of bases, leaving a 'sticky end'

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

• PCR is used to quickly amplify a DNA sequence (gene)

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) Technology Definition

• Recombinant DNA technology joins two or more gene sequences to make an artificial DNA

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) Technology Process

• Isolate plasmid from bacteria and identify the gene of interest from the organism
• Use the same restriction enzyme to cut the plasmid and gene of interest
• DNA ligase joins the gene of interest and plasmid to form recombinant DNA
• Insert the altered plasmid back into the bacterial cell
• Replication occurs quickly, producing many copies of the gene of interest
• The gene of interest is harvested and purified for use

Transgenic Organism Definition

• An organism or cell whose genome has been altered by artificial introduction of foreign DNA sequences from another species

Transgenic Organism Gene Insertion

• The insertion of genes from one organism to another is possible because the DNA in all organisms has the same molecular structure
• Always include gene regulators to ensure the DNA is transcribed properly
• Include examples of Bt cotton, Round-up crops, Atryn goats, genetically engineered salmon, golden rice, and GloFish

Methods of Gene Insertion

• Micro-injection: DNA directly into the cell nucleus, e.g., into egg cells under a microscope
• Gene gun: blast the gene into the nucleus
• Viral vectors: use a virus as a vector to insert recombinant DNA into a host cell (via bloodstream, aerosol, or direct injection)

How Genetic Techniques Affect Earth's Biodiversity

• Biotechnology combines biology and technology to create new products and processes
• The term was coined in the 1960s during major advances in genetic engineering
• Processes like fermentation and selective breeding date back to ancient civilizations
• Modern biotechnology can cause social, cultural, and ethical concerns, which shape its use around the world

Examples of Biotechnology Applications and their Social / Ethical Implications

• Microorganisms are used to produced recombinant proteins, yeast ferments food, produces alcoholic drinks and antibiotics
• Plants and animals involve artificial pollination, produce favorable traits in crops and GMOs
• Humans develop products to prevent, diagnose and treat disease, and are involved in genetic engineering and cloning

Future Applications of Biotechnology

• Targeted therapy
• Gene therapy
• Agriculture
• Synthetic biology
• Climate change solutions
• Fermentation

Bt Cotton

• Bt cotton is a genetically modified organism containing a gene from a bacterium that kills the caterpillar of moths
• Scientists extract the Bt gene, multiply it, and insert it into cotton plant embryos

Ethical Issues with Bt Cotton and the Ownership of Living Things

• Should companies be allowed to monopolize control over Bt, disadvantaging poorer farmers?
• The cross-contamination of bacteria leads to killing animals in the environment
• Reduces biodiversity by killing certain animals and becoming the dominant cotton crop

Designer Babies and Ethical Issues

• Designer babies may lead to ethical issues of genetic enhancement where people may deliberately select children for desired traits (Eugenics)
• This technology can screen for stature and intelligence & is not allowed in many countries

Stem Cell Therapy

• Stem cells are undifferentiated with the capacity to become any special cell
• There is a chance stem cells can repair the damaged or destroyed cells via organ transplantation

Concerns and Issues with Stem Cell Therapy

• May involve the destruction of embryos to obtain the stem cells
• It can be quite costly & has long term side effects that are still unknown

Gene Therapy

• Gene therapy adds a corrected copy of a defective gene, so diseased tissues and organs can work properly

Concerns and Issues with Gene Therapy

• Treatment effectiveness, immune responses, financial accessibility, and the decision of normative traits
• CRISPR is able to selectively modify DNA in a living organism

CRISPR Process

• CRISPR: uses sequences from bacteria, are transcribed to short RNA to match DNA sequences
• Cas-9 protein forms a complex with the guide RNA, then binds to DNA and cuts it
• This shuts the targeted gene off or activates gene expression to modify gene sequences

Implications of Biotechnology

• Concern exists that novel animal viruses will affect humans
• Vegetarians may be concerned that animal genes are used in plant products
• Some oppose genetic engineering on moral/religious grounds

Issues Involving Biotechnology & Plants

• Concerns that genes from GMOs may affect native species
• Original varieties of crops may disappear, and new allergens may be created

Selective Breeding

• Selective breeding is also known as artificial selection and has selected certain traits on a single species
• Main purpose is to increase characteristics most favorable for human use
• Artificial pollination controls plant reproduction

Impact of Selective Breeding

• Health of the animal or plant
• Uncontrollable pest plant species
• Loss of biodiversity
• Reduced genetic variation

Evaluating the Potential Benefits to Society

• Synthetic meat production leading to end world hunger
• Longer life is impacted by overcrowding and unemployment
• Genome editing potentially allows for better health, less suffering, with issues of equity and insurance

Benefits of Biotechnology

• Treating genetic conditions by correcting DNA sequences improving health outcomes, prolonged life and improve quality of life
• Specificity and easier handling compared to genetic editing tools
• Uses animal models to allow researchers to test on animals

Disadvantages of Biotechnology

• Lead to off target mutations and eugenics
• Financial accessibility and consent for minors (e.g. children) are required
• Animal welfare and dignity require ethics

Types of Biotechnology

• Agricultural biotechnology
• Food production
• Medicine
• Reproduction technologies
• Gene therapy
• Transgenesis and CRISPR