Introduction to Microbiology

• Microbiology studies microscopic organisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, algae, and slime molds.
• These organisms are generally too small to be seen without aid.
• Microbiology explores the structure, life processes, reproduction, and relationships to other organisms, including humans, animals, and plants.
• Microorganisms, though appearing simple, are extraordinarily complex and ubiquitous, found in air, soil, water, and on living beings.
• Pure microbiology focuses on the microorganisms and their functions.
• Applied microbiology involves use and application of microorganisms in medicine, industry, environment, food production, and pharmaceuticals.

Sub-classes of Pure Microbiology:

• Bacteriology studies bacteria.
• Mycology studies fungi.
• Virology studies viruses.
• Protozoology studies protozoa.
• Algology/Phycology studies algae.
• Parasitology studies parasites.
• Nematology studies nematodes.
• Immunology studies the immune system.

Applied Microbiology:

• Medical microbiology studies causative agents of diseases, their diagnosis, treatment, and preventive measures.
• Industrial microbiology studies large-scale growth of microorganisms for industrial chemicals, medicinal products, hormones, proteins, and beverage fermentation.
• Environmental microbiology studies interactions between microorganisms and the environment (soil, water, air).
• Food microbiology studies use of microorganisms in food production (yogurt, cheese, wine, beer), single-cell proteins, spoilage prevention, and disease transmission.
• Pharmaceutical microbiology studies the application of microorganisms to pharmaceutical developments and quality maintenance.
• Public health microbiology studies microorganisms and infectious diseases affecting human health.

Early History:

• Microbiology's beginnings trace back to microscope development.
• Robert Hooke observed and described small boxes (cells) in cork slices in the mid-1600s.
• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed microscopic organisms (animalcules) in the 1670s.
• Leeuwenhoek documented his observations with detailed descriptions and illustrations.
• He is considered the first to provide proper documentation and description of said observations.
• Royal Society of London received a letter from Leeuwenhoek in 1674.
• Leeuwenhoek is regarded as the father of microbiology.
• After his death, the study of microbiology did not develop rapidly because microscopes were rare and there was not much interest in microorganisms.

Spontaneous Generation Theory:

• The theory of spontaneous generation (abiogenesis) proposed that organisms visible to the naked eye could arise from non-living matter.
• Francesco Redi discredited this theory by covering meat with gauze and preventing flies from laying eggs, showing worms originated from fly eggs, not decaying meat.
• Louis Jablot conducted an experiment in which he divided hay infusion that had been boiled in flasks.
• He covered one and exposed one to the air where only the flask opened to air developed microorganisms.
• John Needham suggested that microscopic organisms could arise spontaneously from organic matter due to improperly sealed flasks.
• Lazzaro Spallanzani demonstrated that boiled and sealed flasks showed no microorganism growth.
• Air carries organisms and external air supports animal growth.
• Louis Pasteur and John Tyndall disproved spontaneous generation with experiments demonstrating air carries microorganisms.
• Pasteur trapped organisms using cotton plugs and observed them under a microscope.
• Sterile infusions stayed sterile in swan-necked flasks open to air because organisms settled in the neck bends and bacteria only reached broth when tipped.
• Pasteur's experiment proved microorganisms exist in the air.

Germ Theory:

• Louis Pasteur's germ theory postulated that microorganisms cause infectious diseases.
• Robert Koch demonstrated microorganisms' role in causing diseases, specifically anthrax in mice.
• Koch's postulates set standards for proving an organism's role in disease involving the following criteria:
• The microorganism must be found in all disease cases but not in healthy individuals.
• The microorganism must be isolated from the diseased individual.
• Inoculation of a healthy individual with the cultured microorganism must reproduce the disease.
• The organism must be isolated again from the new host.
• Koch's anthrax proof was confirmed by Pasteur's team.
• Bacillus anthracis spores survived after burial, were brought to the surface by earthworms, and made healthy animals sick when ingested.
• Koch sought ways to cultivate bacterial pathogens, initially using sterile cut potatoes before adding gelatin to liquid medium.
• Fannie Eilshemius Hesse provided agar.
• Richard Petri developed the petri dish.
• Koch developed media to grow pathogenic bacteria from the body using meat extracts and protein digests to make nutrient broth and agar.
• Koch isolated the bacillus that causes tuberculosis.
• Koch was awarded the 1905 Nobel Prize for his tuberculosis contributions.

Sterilization:

• Sterilization removes, kills, or deactivates all microorganisms and biological agents on a surface or in a fluid.
• John Tyndall found infusions require different boiling times for sterilization and hay infusions are hard to sterilize due to heat-resistant life forms.
• Tyndall proposed Tyndallization (fractional sterilization/discontinuous heating), boiling infusions for 15-20 minutes at 100°C daily for three days.
• Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization, heating at 72°C for 15 seconds to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms, mainly in milk and beverages.
• Other pasteurization methods include Vat pasteurization, ultra pasteurization, and higher temperature short time pasteurization.
• Autoclaving sterilizes by using steam under pressure (15 psi) to achieve 121°C for 15 minutes.
• Chemical methods, filtration, and radiation are also sterilization methods.

Cell Theory:

• Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann stated all organisms are composed of cells.
• All organisms are made of one or more cells.
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.
• All cells come from existing cells through cellular division.

Golden Age of Microbiology:

• During the 1800s and early 1900s, scientists identified many agents of infectious diseases, helping control epidemics.
• Virus discovery was made possible with Chamberland filter constructed by Charles Chamberland in 1884.
• In 1892, Dmitri Ivanovsky used the filter to show sap from diseased tobacco plants infectious to healthy plants, even after filtering.
• Martinus Beijerinck named the filtered infectious substance "virus" and is considered the beginning of virology with the studied tobacco mosaic disease virus.
• Edward Jenner used cowpox materials to vaccinate against smallpox, creating the world's first successful vaccine.
• Emile Roux and Pasteur produced the first veterinary vaccine and the human rabies vaccine.
• Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 from Penicillium chrysogenium.

Era of Molecular Microbiology:

• Beginning in the 1950s, this era advanced knowledge of bacterial physiology, biochemistry, and genetics.
• Genetic manipulation includes DNA transfer between organisms.
• DNA sequencing revealed evolutionary relationships among bacteria.
• DNA sequencing gave birth to the field of genomics by 1990.

Prokaryotes:

• Prokaryotic cells are cells lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, including Bacteria and Archaea.
• A prokaryotic cell has a single membrane where all reactions occur within the cytoplasm and exist as free-living organisms or parasites.
• Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear membrane, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplasts, and lysosomes.
• Genetic material in prokaryotes exists on a single chromosome, lacking histone proteins, and the cell wall is made of carbohydrates and amino acids.
• The plasma membrane acts as mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.
• Asexual reproduction occurs via binary fission, while sexual reproduction occurs via conjugation.
• The genetic material, is present in the nucleoid region.
• Prokaryotic cells can be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral.

Prokaryotic cell structure includes:

• Capsule: An outer protective covering for moisture retention, protection against engulfment, and attachment to surfaces.
• Cell Wall: The outermost layer defining the cell's shape.
• Cytoplasm: Composed of enzymes, salts, and cell organelles, with organelles suspended in a gel-like component.
• Cell Membrane: Surrounds the cytoplasm, regulating substance entry and exit.
• Pili: Hair-like structures for attachment to other bacterial cells (fimbriae aid surface attachment).
• Flagella: Long, whip-like structures for cell locomotion.
• Ribosomes: Responsible for protein synthesis.
• Plasmids: Non-chromosomal DNA structures not involved in reproduction.
• Nucleoid Region: Contains the bacterial DNA molecule.
• Plasma Membrane: A phospholipid layer separating the cell from the environment. -DNA: Genetic material that directs protein creation and cell activities.

Classification of Prokaryotes

• Prokaryotes are classified into two domains: Bacteria and Archaea.
• Bacteria include disease-causing pathogens, photosynthesizers, and symbionts.
• Archaea include organisms in extreme environments.

Classification Criteria:

• Shape: Cocci, rods, rigid helical (spirillium), flexible helical (spirochetes), vibrio.
• Staining Patterns: Based on how they stain.
• Biochemical Differences: Based on biochemical differences.
• Nucleotide Sequences: Sequences in genes, particularly rRNA.
• Genetic Differences: Archae are genetically distinct from Bacteria and Eukaryotes.

Reproduction in Prokaryotes:

• Asexual by binary fission
• Sexual by conjugation.

Binary Fission:

• The DNA replicates and attaches to the cell membrane.
• The cell wall enlarges and moves inwards.
• A cell wall forms between each DNA, dividing the cell.

Recombination:

• Genes transfer from one bacterium to another via conjugation, transformation, or transduction.

Conjugation:

• Genes transfer via a protein tube (pilus).

Transformation:

• DNA from the surroundings is taken up.

Transduction:

• Genetic material transfers with virus help.

Biology of Bacteria:

• Bacteria are prokaryotes.
• Most are single-celled/unicellular.
• Some, like Myxobacteria, have multicellular stages.
• Cyanobacteria create large colonies.
• Bacteria are microscopic.
• Most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan.
• Bacteria are classified into Gram-negative and Gram-positive based on peptidoglycan thickness.

Ecology:

• Bacteria exist in almost every habitat.
• They inhabit soil, water, and air, and are found on animal skin, in mouths, and intestines.
• Many bacteria have symbiotic relationships.
• Some are mutually beneficial, and some are harmful (parasitism).
• Some cause disease and are known as pathogens.
• Bacteria cycle earth elements and decompose remains.
• Cyanobacteria produce oxygen through photosynthesis.

Ecological Relationship of Bacteria and Their Roles in Natural and Special Environments:

• Soil microbes gain energy from their environment.
• Enzymes decompose dead organic material, releasing nutrients.
• These enzymes convert carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, and nitrogenous compounds into simpler forms that are used by the green plants as raw materials.
• Saprophytic bacteria decompose organic compounds, convert them to manure, remove harmful waste, and act as nature's scavengers.
• Soil bacteria are used to improve crop production by decomposing organic matter, supplying nutrients, producing growth hormones, improving soil structure, and suppressing pathogens.
• Bacteria cycle oxygen, carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, and nitrogen in ecosystems.
• Some microbes use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide to oxygen.

Nitrogen fixers:

• Bacteria assimilate N for plants.
• They fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is further converted by the bacteria to make their own organic compounds.
• Free-living bacteria (e.g. Azotobacter, Clostridium) fix nitrogen in the soil.
• Symbiotic bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium) live in legume roots.
• Some bacteria (ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria) increase fertility.
• Decomposers reduce amino acids into ammonium salts in ammonification via Bacillus vulgaris.
• Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium salts into nitrates.
• Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria produce hormones and vitamins that enhance growth, promote bioremediation, and protect plants.
• Hormones like auxin and cytokinin encourage plant health.

Phosphorus Solubilizers:

• Bacteria make phosphorus available to roots and produce plant hormones.
• They help manage phosphorus in soils and mobilize it, preventing algae blooms.

Water:

• Bacteria purify drinking water.
• Bacteria in untreated water aid purification by biodegrading contaminants.
• Some bacteria are pathogens.
• Bacteria degrade organic compounds and clean oil spills.
• Hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria remediate ecosystems in the Niger Delta.
• Bacteria are used for the bioremediation of industrial wastes.
• Assays of water purity detect fecal contamination using indicator bacteria found in intestines of birds and mammals by using lab procedures.

Testing for E. coli:

• Testing for E. coli determines whether water or its products have been exposed to feces.
• Coliforms, including E. coli, are Gram-negative, lactose-fermenting, and gas-producing bacteria.
• Coliform assays have been used since 1914.
• Recently, microbiologists have found coliforms grow in fecal-free environments such as freshwater.

Food Industry:

• Fermentation (breakdown of carbohydrates in absence of oxygen)action of various bacteria produces organic compounds (lactic acid, acetic acid, etc).
• Bacteria help produce enzymes.
• Micrococcus bacteria flavor tea, coffee, and cocoa.
• Bacillus megaterium helps cure leaves of tea and tobacco, beans of coffee and cocoa.
• Milk converts into cheese, butter milk and yogurt due to bacteria.
• Acid-producing bacteria like Streptococcus lactis cause casein to precipitate to make curd.
• Microorganisms ripen cheese after salt addition.

Roles of Bacteria in Diseases:

• Improperly processed foods can be spoiled by saprophytic bacteria.
• Toxins from bacteria can cause food poisoning.
• Staphylococcus aureus causes gastrointestinal distress.
• Clostridium botulinum causes botulism.
• Salmonella species causes salmonellosis.
• Shigella dysenteriae causes shigellosis.
• Over 90% of human and 10% of plant diseases are caused by bacteria.
• Examples of diseases caused by bacteria such as cholera, tuberculosis, syphilis, anthrax, plague.
• Examples of plant diseases caused by bacteria are citrus canker, wilt diseases etc.
• Harmful bacteria are known as pathogenic bacteria.

Useful Roles of Bacteria in Medicine:

• Bacteria produce antibiotics.
• Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin and Waksman streptomycin.
• Tyrothricin was identified which was made up of two compounds.
• For an antibiotic to be considered good it should destroy a wide range of microbes and should not have side effects and should not give harm to the host's flora.
• Bacterial vaccines stimulate the immune system.
• Attenuated bacteria vaccines provide immunity.
• E. coli produce vaccine components.
• Enzymes are important enzymes and are used in medical settings.
• Probiotics are living microorganisms that enhance health.
• Bacteria maintain gut health and boost the immune system as probiotics.
• Clostridium novyi can target and kill cancer cells.

Biology of Fungi:

• Study the biology, ecology, and applications of fungi.
• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms in a wide range of structure that can be single celled to multicellular, microscopic or present large fruiting bodies, Fungi include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.
• Cell walls are made of chitin and are heterotrophic.
• Critical role in ecosystems due to metabolic versatility and ecological relationships.

Decomposers in the Ecosystem:

• Break down organic matter, like bacteria.
• Fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots to enhance nutrient absorption and get carbohydrates in return.
• Fungi and algae or cyanobacteria form Lichens to get food while sheltering or getting water for the algae.
• Fungi coexist without harm so benefit is not noticeable in Commensalism.
• Some fungi extract nutrients and cause parasitic damage to plants.
• Benefits of fungi are soil biodiversity and fungi tackle challenges like climate change and hunger.

Nutrient Cycling of Fungi:

• They break down matter, making the nutrients available.
• Fungi have the ability to propel nitrogen fixation and phosphorus mobilization.

Carbon Cycling and Climate Regulation:

• Fungi cycle carbon through the soil food web.
• Both fungi and plants capture carbon from the atmosphere and store it.
• Fungi controls the ability to control crop plant diseases but controlling fungal pathogens.
• Fungi resist the ability to resist stress conditions by helping plants.
• They can improve plant tolerance to stresses.
• Soil structured and soil stabilizes depending on the Organic matter.
• They are sustainable agriculture and they reduce the need for pesticides.

Nutritional Value of Edible Mushrooms:

• Rich in vitamins B, C, and D, fiber, and minerals.
• Good source of protein.
• Can be grown without fertile soil using agricultural waste.
• Can reduce agro-waste while increasing food supply, farmers' income and generating new employment opportunities.
• Fungi can play the role of development of disease but they are also used to prevent and treat diseases.
• Fungal infections are cause diseases of the skin, hair, and nails, such as athlete's foot, ringworm etc.
• Fungal exposure causes asthma due to spores.

Fungi produce many helpful things in the medicine industry such as:

• Antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporins.
• Immunosuppressants such as cyclosporie to stop reactions of the body's immune systems.
• Antifungal agents: such as griseofulvin.
• Statins that treat high cholestrol such as rosuvastatin.
• Cancer treatments: Fungal metabolites are being tested in clinical trials to treat cancer.

Water treatment using Fungi:

• Fungi can break down organic material, contribute to the food web, and affect water quality.
• Fungi break down organic material like leaves and twigs for Freshwater.
• Fungi break down organic material in marine sediments and they break down organic sludge reduces amount of waste.
• Water in the surface water ecosystems are also contributed to by fungi.
• Some antimicrobial properties that help pathogenic bacteria are wastewater.

Viruses:

• Typically described as obligate intracellular parasites.
• They are acellular infectious agents.
• They require the presence of a host cell in order to multiply and have been found to infect all types of cells.

Viral Structure:

• Envelope:
  • It is described as a lipid bilayer that surrounds the virus, derived from the host cell's membrane during viral replication and budding.
  • It provides protection to the viral components and assists in the entry of the virus into host cells through fusion with the host cell membrane.
• Envelope Proteins:
  • These are glycoproteins that protrude from the envelope's surface.
  • Attachment and Fusion proteins are included.
  • Essential hosts for cell recognition and bindings and these proteins play a roll in the viral life cycle by enabling infection.
• Nucleocapsid Structure:
  • Structural complex formed by the capsid (protein coat) and the viral genome.
  • Composed of protein subunits (capsomers) that assemble around the viral nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA).
  • It protects the viral genome and plays a role in its delivery to the host cell's cytoplasm during infection, aids in the assembly of new virions within the host cell.
• Viral Genome
  • The viral genome consists of the nucleic acid that encodes the information necessary for viral replication and protein synthesis.
  • This can be single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA.
  • It carries the genetic information required for the virus to replicate inside a host cell and produce new viral particles.
• Viral Tegument Description:
  • Proteinaceous layer found between the envelope and the nucleocapsid in certain enveloped viruses (most notably herpesviruses).
  • It contains various viral proteins that play roles in the viral lifecycle, such as enzymes and immune evasion factors.
  • Tegument proteins assist in the early stages of infection, manipulating host cell processes, facilitating viral replication, evade detection by the host's immune system.

Viral classifiction Based on

- Shape:
    -Helical
    -Polyhedral 
    -Complex
    -Spherical
- Size:
    -20 to 300 nanometers, much smaller than bacteria.
- Genone type: 
    -DNA or RNA
    -Single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds).

Virus Replication Cycle:

• Attachment:
  • Binds to specific receptors on the host cell surface.
• Penetration: -Enters or its genetic material enters the host cell.
• Biosynthesis:
  • Hijacks the host cell machinery to replicate viral particles.
• Maturation:
  • Newly synthesized viral components assemble into new viruses.
• Release:
  • New viral particles are released from the host cell, often destroying it (lysis).

Types of Viruses Based on Their Replication:

• Lytic Cycle:
  • Virus immediately replicates and bursts the host cell.
• Lysogenic Cycle:
  • Viral genome integrates into host DNA and replicates passively with host cell division.

Ecological Roles of Viruses:

• Soil:
  • Microbial Regulation:
    • Bacteriophages: Target specific bacteria, regulating populations in soil environments.
      • By lysing bacteria, bacteriophages control bacterial abundance and diversity.
  • Nutrient Cycling:
    • Virioplankton:
      • Contribute to nutrient cycling by lysing microbial cells and releasing nutrients back into the soil.
      • Enhances the available nutrient pool.
  • Soil Health and Fertility:
    • Phages: Help maintain a balanced microbial community.
  • Horizontal Gene Transfer:
    • Mobile Genetic Elements: Some viruses facilitate the transfer of genes, including those for antibiotic resistance, enhancing genetic diversity among soil bacteria.
  • Pathogen Control: -Bacteriophage effectiveness has been studied in agricultural environments.
• Water: -Microbial Control: -Tailed Bacteriophages: Target specific pathogenic bacteria in aquatic systems, regulating their populations and maintaining water quality.
  • Nutrient Cycling:
    • Aquatic Phages: contribute to the breakdown of marine bacterial cells, releasing essential nutrients like nitrogen and carbon. -Promotes the growth of phytoplankton and other microorganisms.
  • Disease Transmission:
    • Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV): Affects fish populations in freshwater systems, impacting the overall health of aquatic ecosystems.
  • Biogeochemical Processes:
    • Marine RNA Viruses: Influence carbon cycling by affecting the decomposition processes of organic matter.
  • Ecosystem Dynamics:
    • Cyanophage: Viruses regulate cyanobacteria populations, influencing phytoplankton dynamics and the broader aquatic food web.

Viruses in the Food Industry:

• Biocontrol Agents Application:

  • Bacteriophages are used to target foodborne pathogens.
  • Listeria monocytogenes which target:
    • Plages are applied in ready-to-eat, dairy products, and salads to enhance food safety.
    • Bacteriophages are used to reduce Salmonella in poultry and meat products..

• Food Fermentation Application:

  • Bacteriophages play a role in the balance beneficial bacteria in fermented dairy products.
  • Eliminate spoilages and improve enhance flavor, texture, and shelf life.

• Food Preservation :

  • Phages are used as a natural biopreservative

• Viral Vectors in Biotechnology Applications:

  • Plant viruses transfer genes into crops, to prevent harm from pests to improve their content making it sustainable.

• Diagnosis and Detection of Pathogens: -Vuruses are used in genetic testing to help identify them through methods like PCR.

• Research and Development -Viruses are used as toolds to study viral dynamics

• Sustainable Food Production -With use of viral agents, the reliance on chemical fertilizers contributing to sustaining is reduced.

Pathogenic Role of Viruses in Disease Development

• Infectious Diseases: -Respiratory Infections: Influenza virus is the cause of season influenza and corona virus is the cause of COVID-19. -Hepatitis Viruses: Leads to liver and cirrois infection. -Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): Compromises the immune system can lead to AIDS. -Herpesviruse: Cold sores to genital herpes.
  • Mechanisms of Pathogenicity: -Cell Damage: Causes tissue danage because they repicate inside host cells. -Immune repsonse:Body's response to viral interfections. -Oncogenesis: Certain can induce cnaver by integrating viral genrtic material.

Role of Viruses in Medicine and Therapeutics

 -Vaccines are to prevent viral infections.
 -Antiviral Therapies target viral replication as well as HIV's Hepiatitis C and developed including Antiretroviral & Direct-acting antivirals.
 -Oncolytic Viruses can selectively infect and kill cancer cells.
 -Gene Therapy Viral vectors are use to delivery genetic in patiens' cells
 -Immunotherapy's viruses stimulate an an immune response against cancer.

Conclusion

-Understandinh Viruses helps provide tools in innovative, therapeutic strategies and helps guide benefits in medicine.

Protozoa:

• Single-celled eukaryotic microorganisms belonging to the Kingdom Protista.
• Exhibit diverse morphology and physiology, ranging from 1 to 100 micrometers, and exist either freely or parasitically.
• As members of kingdom Protozoa, they are neither plants, animals, nor fungi.
• Integral in ecological balance, research, and industrial applications, but parasitic members pose health challenges.

Key Features of Protozoa:

• Cell Structure: Protozoa have a nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane and contain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
• Locomotion: Move using structures called flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia.
• Nutrition: -Holozoic Nutrition -(Phagotrophic): Ingest solid particles such as bacteria or algae, the food enclosed in a food vacuole where enzymes break it down. -Saprozoic - (Osmotrophic): Absorb nutrients directly from their environment. -Parasitic: Derive nutrients from a host.
  • Halophytic Nutrition: synthesize their own food through photosynthesis so they have chlorophyll or chloroplast to capture sunlight.

Protozoa Reproduction

• Asexually and sexually, the asexual reproduction is binary fission/budding the sexual is syngamy/conjugation.

Protozoa Habitat

• diverse they live in soil water and in the bodies of hosts.

Relationships among protozoa

• Symbiosis occurs when organisms benefit.
  • associations among protozoan are also mutually beneficial.
• commensialism only affects with one is uneffected. -commensially are found in ruminent animals. -parasistism protozoa hurt their host.
• The many protozona pathogens that cause disease,some have alternative two phase life alternating (trophozoites) and resting cyst that survive harsh conditions.
• Many protozoa act as predators and feed on bacteria to get the micriboial population regulating. The roles in protozoa are used in natural enviorments.

Role of protoza in Water

• Aquatic chains the protozoa use are the food source for the primary consumer.
• The water purification the protozoa help reduce the bacterial load.

Role of protozoa in Food industry

• Fermentations with cellulites may be evolved in the industry with dairy productions
• Biomediation are employed to treat waster water by consuming pollutants.

Protozoa causes of Disease and Devlopement

• Play roles as a significant pathogens. -Human Diseases Malaria caused from transmitted anatheles. -Animal disease.

Protozoa in Medician

-Vaccines Studies: of immune responses to protozoa and the develope aids of vaccine.

Algea Definition

• A green group of autotrophic plants like organisms
• simple, non vascular steam and leaf lie organs,unicilluar and muticellular.

Distinctive Characteristic of Algae

• have no differentiation however they are chlorophyll bearing thalloid plants.
• All of them are aquatic except few
• when muticelluar they are uncellular sex organs
• No embryo is formed
• Repirudtion takes place by both modes
• Algea are classify according to nuclear, composition, and pigment type.

Types of Algea

• The types of blue ,green, and red vary on pigments.
• Contain Chlorophyll and are green
• Algea are for the most part aquatic there are aquatic, and terresital types.

Economic Imporatance

• blue green algae are important in agenture.
• Algea are an important sourse of food for the aquatic animals because they syntesize organic compoundds, and itis an imporant sourse of food.
• Algea an help with space travel because they are a great sourse of food.
• Algue is also the origen of pertroleam used for gas, algea alwsys removes calcium in its from.

Algea are in sewage disposal

Useful properties

• Agar Agar
• and Algin with algea aids in other process involving textiles, water as well as textile and skin product.
• All of these cause Algea to cause side effects

The algae have negative value as well which can be outlines in following headings-

• causes many infections particularly toxicity.
• Water blooms In the summers preferably in rainy and spring season and

Taxonomy Definition:

• It is the science of biological classification contains identification and nomenclature.
• Classification organisms sharing simular phsic, and genetuc traits into specific grouups
• Nomenclature in the brach concerned with naming the assigenmt of tanomic groups

History of Taxonomy:

• Classified all living organisms in animals and plants and is considered the reason taxonomy.
• This used Cell type level of organization and all of the type of mutrition
• The way it does this also shows its morphology, biochemistry and can allow the way its preformed.
• There are specific ways to look bacteria

The techniques are used to culture Bacteria are all the same for others

• Isolate
• obbervation

and

• identification
• To get specific types of bateria. _Solid for those on soil or semi . _lIquuid. rich in nutrients..
• Differential and select are are the key the incubate.
• To prevent the the use lyophiization.