Introduction to Linguistics

Introducing Linguistics Series

• A concise and engaging introduction to central subjects of contemporary linguistics
• Presupposes no prior knowledge of linguistics
• Each volume sets out fundamental skills and knowledge of the field, providing an ideal educational platform for further study in linguistics

Semantics

• Written by John I. Saeed
• Second edition published in 2003
• Part of the Introducing Linguistics series
• Focuses on the study of meaning in language

Preliminaries

• Semantics is the study of meaning in language
• Challenges in doing semantics include:
  • Defining meaning
  • Distinguishing between literal and non-literal meaning
  • Accounting for context and pragmatics
• Semantics is a crucial component of a model of grammar
• Important assumptions in semantics include:
  • Reference and sense
  • Utterances, sentences, and propositions
  • Literal and non-literal meaning
  • Semantics and pragmatics

Meaning, Thought, and Reality

• Reference is a central concept in semantics
• Types of reference include:
  • Names
  • Nouns and noun phrases
• Reference as a theory of meaning
• Mental representations of meaning include:
  • Concepts
  • Necessary and sufficient conditions
  • Prototypes
  • Relations between concepts
  • Acquiring concepts

Semantic Description

• Word meaning is a complex and multifaceted concept
• Words and grammatical categories
• Words and lexical items
• Problems in pinning down word meaning include:
  • Homonymy
  • Polysemy
  • Synonymy
  • Opposites (antonymy)
  • Hyponymy
  • Meronymy
• Lexical relations include:
  • Derivational relations
  • Lexical universals
  • Colour terms
  • Core vocabulary
  • Universal lexemes

Sentence Relations and Truth

• Logic and truth are central to sentence semantics
• Necessary truths, a priori truths, and analyticity
• Entailment and presupposition
• Presupposition failure and triggers
• Pragmatic theories of presupposition

Sentence Semantics

• Sentence semantics focuses on the meaning of sentences
• Classifying situations:
  • Verbs and situation types
  • A system of situation types
  • Tense and aspect
  • Comparing aspect across languages
  • Combining situation type and aspect
• Modality and evidentiality### Introduction to Semantics
• The book is an introduction to semantics for readers new to the subject.
• The aim of the book is to provide an overview of central ideas in the field and introduce readers to important writers in the field.

Organization of the Book

• The book is divided into three main sections:
  • Part I: Preliminaries (Chapters 1-2)
  • Part II: Semantic Description (Chapters 3-8)
  • Part III: Theoretical Approaches (Chapters 9-11)
• Each chapter includes exercises and suggestions for further reading.

Part I: Preliminaries

• Chapter 1: Introduces the place of semantics within linguistics and its relations with philosophy and psychology.
• Chapter 2: Explores the connections between semantics and other disciplines.

Part II: Semantic Description

• Chapters 3-8: Introduce central topics in the analysis of word and sentence meaning.
• Topics include:
  • Modality, Evidentiality, and Sentence Semantics
  • Context and Inference
  • Functions of Language: Speech as Action
  • Meaning Components

Part III: Theoretical Approaches

• Chapters 9-11: Review three important semantic theories:
  • Componential Theory
  • Formal Semantics
  • Cognitive Semantics

Features of the Book

• Examples from different languages are given in the original transcription.
• References to the semantics literature are provided throughout the text.
• A list of symbols and abbreviations used in the text is included.

Acknowledgments

• The author thanks students, colleagues, and reviewers for their comments and feedback.
• The author acknowledges the support of Trinity College Dublin and the Department of African Languages and Cultures of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.### Introduction to Semantics
• Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language.
• It involves investigating how people understand meaning and how we can describe semantic knowledge.

Important Concepts in Semantics

• Phonology: the study of sounds in a language and how they combine to form words.
• Syntax: the study of how words can be combined into sentences.
• Semantics: the study of the meanings of words and sentences.
• Semiotics: the study of signs and symbols, which is a broader field that encompasses linguistics.

Challenges in Doing Semantics

• The problem of circularity: how can we define words without using other words, and how do we avoid circular definitions?
• The problem of exactness: how do we ensure that our definitions of words are accurate and precise?
• The problem of context: how do we account for the role of context in determining the meaning of words and sentences?

Strategies for Meeting the Challenges

• Designing a semantic metalanguage to describe the semantic units and rules of languages.
• Grounding words in non-linguistic concepts, such as real-world objects, to give them meaning.
• Separating the literal meaning of words from their contextual effects.

Semantics in a Model of Grammar

• Semantics is often considered a component of grammar, parallel to syntax and phonology.
• The goal of semantics is to set up a component of the grammar that describes the meaning of words and sentences.
• There are different approaches to semantics, including the creation of semantic metalanguages, the modeling of conceptual knowledge, and the theory of literal language.