Introduction to International Relations

International Relations (IR) Defined

• A multi-faceted field examining interactions between countries and non-state actors on a global scale
• Focuses on formal diplomacy and international cooperation, and informal networks of trade, security, and ideology
• These influence global politics

World Politics

• This is a more expansive term than IR
• Considers more actors, including organizations and institutions

History of IR

• Originates with the establishment of the Department of International Politics at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth in 1919
• Founded post-WWI with the intention of preventing future wars through understanding their causes
• Aims to improve the world through academic study

Challenges to Traditional IR History

• Some scholars argue its roots lie in colonial administration and the study of imperialism
• The Journal of Race Development (1910) justified racial supremacy
• Early IR development was tied to oppressing marginalized groups, excluding African-American scholars
• Other perspectives suggest multifaceted origins emerging from various global contexts
• Ongoing critique addresses the marginalization of women thinkers and founders in IR history

Importance of Historical Context

• Crucial for analyzing world politics effectively

Narrow Sense of IR

• Focuses on sovereign nation-states
• These are political entities with recognized authority over a defined area and population
• Characterized by non-interference from external sources

Focus Areas in the Narrow Sense

• War and Peace: Studies national interactions during conflict and peace
• The mechanisms of diplomacy and conflict avoidance are key
• Examples include military alliances, peace treaties, negotiations, and UN peacekeeping forces
• International Law and Treaties: These are legally binding agreements governing state behavior
• Examples include the UN Charter, arms control, and trade agreements
• Aims to regulate interactions to prevent conflict and encourage cooperation
• Membership in IGOs and Alliances: States participate to promote cooperation, manage conflicts, and enhance security
• Examples of organizations include the UN, NATO, African Union (AU), and European Union (EU)
• Diplomacy: Formal negotiation process between states to resolve conflicts, make agreements, and advance national interests
• Diplomacy maintains peace and facilitates cooperation
• Originates from the Greek "diploma," meaning "a document folded twice," symbolizing formal agreements

Broad Sense of IR

• Incorporates various non-state actors that influence international affairs

Key Non-State Actors

• Multinational Corporations (MNCs): Shape global economic and political relations
• Companies, like Apple or Shell, influence trade policies, labor standards, and environmental regulations
• Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs): Institutions like the UN, NATO, EU, and WTO facilitate cooperation between governments
• They seek to regulate and promote cooperation across borders in areas like peacekeeping, trade, and human rights
• International Financial Organizations (IFOs): Entities like the World Bank and the IMF influence global economic policies and provide financial aid
• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Operate independently of governments to address humanitarian issues
• Examples include the Red Cross, Amnesty International, and Doctors Without Borders
• Transnational Movements and Violent Non-State Actors: Destabilize regions
• Terrorist organizations, insurgent groups, and ideologically driven movements fall into this category
• Examples include ISIS, Al-Qaeda, and the Taliban

Case Study: Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda

• Highlights the complexity of IR when dealing with non-state actors and resource-driven conflicts
• Exploitation of natural resources (minerals, precious metals) has fueled conflict in the DRC
• Foreign actors, including Uganda, have been involved in illicit trade
• This has exacerbated regional instability
• The international community is unable to regulate this exploitation

Emergence of the Westphalian Order

• The Peace of Westphalia (1648) established state sovereignty, foundational to modern IR

Key Aspects of the Westphalian Order

• Peace of Westphalia: Ended the Thirty Years' War introducing the idea that each state has sovereignty over its territory
• Sovereignty: States have supreme authority over their territory, free from external interference
• Rise of Sovereign Nation-States: Treaty of Westphalia led to rise of centralized states with authority over territories and populations without outside interference
• First Regulated International System: Formalized territorial relations and diplomatic norms, for modern diplomacy and law

Thomas Hobbes and Foundation of Sovereignty

• Explores The State of Nature and Anarchy

Hobbes' State of Nature

• Absence of government or laws
• States act out of self-interest, driven by security and resource desires
• International system where no central authority exists leads to anarchy, according to Hobbes
• States in international system fight for survival and power

Realist IR Theory

• Hobbes' anarchic world order is a core idea in Realist IR theory
• The absence of an overarching global authority creates a self-help system
• States must rely on own power, leading to competition, insecurity, and conflict

Social Contract and Sovereign Authority in Global Politics

• Hobbes' theory can be applied to the role of the state in international relations
• States ensure their survival and security through sovereign authority
• The sovereign state is the ultimate authority, controlling territory, resources, and military power against external threats
• Belief in state sovereignty translates to each state having supreme control over its internal affairs without external interference
• International system relies on states prioritizing security, acting unilaterally in matters of national defense and territorial disputes

Absolute Sovereignty and State Power

• Hobbes advocated for absolute sovereignty, where the ruler must have unchecked power to maintain order
• In international relations, mirrored in the rights of states to control their own territory, military, and policy
• Impacts how states interact; they might act independently, prioritizing their national interest and security
• Reflects the belief that the sovereign must have ultimate authority, even if that leads to conflict

Sovereignty and Security and the International System

• Hobbes' theory highlights the need for security to avoid anarchy
• This is relevant in international relations, where states often enter alliances, engage in diplomacy, or build military power
• States operate in a self-help system, maximizing security, a foundational concept in Realist IR theory
• State emphasis suggests being concerned with protection their position in the international order
• States pursue military power, form alliances (i.e. NATO), or act unilaterally (i.e. the invasion of Iraq in 2003) to secure interests

Liberal Internationalism

• This emphasizes cooperation, institutions, and interdependence as paths to peace

Historical Background

• Roots lie in Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Immanuel Kant
• They advocated for freedom, democracy, and peace through cooperation
• Liberalism evolved into a political ideology
• Influenced governance and international policies
• Liberal internationalism developed after WWI when empires were unstable and class conflict occurred
• There was women’s suffrage and experiments in international organization
• The decline in inter-state wars post-1945 is attributed to institutions like the UN and the EU

Core Concepts of Liberalism

• Belief that humans and societies can improve
• Capitalism is best way to organize economy
• Representative democracy is necessary for liberal improvement
• Ideas (not just material power) are fundamental in international politics
• Belief in progress, modeled after achievements of liberal capitalist societies in the West

Strengths of Liberalism

• It explains the formation of IGOs and cooperation
• predicts decline in wars between democratic states

Weaknesses of Liberalism

• Overestimates the potential for collective action
• Underestimates state self-interest and power dynamics

Key Principles

• International cooperation fosters peace (UN, EU, NATO, World Bank)
• Harmony of Interests: Economic interdependence reduces conflict
• Countries economically linked are less likely to war, because war would disrupt their mutual economic interests
• Democratic Peace Theory
• Democracies rarely go to war with one another, because leaders are accountable and wars can be unpopular

Critique of Realist Views

• Liberals reject the realist notion that war is natural
• Question the state as the main actor, recognizing individuals, corporations, transnational actors, and international organizations
• States aren't unitary, and the single "national interest" represents societal preferences/bureaucracies
• They negotiate because they must negotiate with a range of other public and private actors

Liberal View of World Politics

• World politics as a system of bargaining among many different types of actors
• Military force remains important, the liberal agenda isn’t limited to relations between great powers
• See national interests in more than military terms Stress on the importance of economic, environmental, and technological issues
• World order emerges from interactions among laws, agreed norms, international regimes, and institutional rules

Neoliberal Institutionalism

• International organizations help states cooperate even in an anarchic international system
• They provide a platform for negotiation, creating rules, and reducing uncertainty between states
• UN for example, emphasize IGOs and military alliances for global stability

Case Study: Trump and the ICC

• International Criminal Court (ICC): prosecute individuals for crimes like genocide and war crimes
• Was reluctant to engage, shows limits of international law when it conflicts with a state's self-interest

Liberal View on Globalization

• Long-running, progressive transformation of world politics
• Role of revolutions that increased interconnectedness among societies
• Changes the patterns of world relations, making states less central
• Brexit regarded as foolish rejection of political and economic integration

Realism and Neorealism

• International relations are driven by the pursuit of power and security
• The international system is anarchic, without higher authority over action
• Most significant actors in global politics are powerful, sovereign states
• Non-state actors work within framework of relations set by these states

Key Concepts

• Balance of power: mechanism that maintains order to ensure no single state can dominate. Diplomacy and alliances are central, but military power remains essential
• Cooperation remains, conflict a persistent possibility

Key Concepts of Realism

• Anarchy: No overarching authority. States must rely on their own resources.
• State-Centrism: States are primary actors acting in their own self-interest. Non-state actors are secondary.
• Survival and Self-Help: States must depend on their own power (military, economic, diplomatic) to ensure security.
• National Interest: States act to secure power and safeguard survival. "National interest" viewed as synonymous with pursuit of power.
• Human Nature: Humans are inherently self-interested, leading to competition.
• Power and Security: States act to maximize power, leading to a struggle for dominance or balance.
• The Security Dilemma: Actions to increase security lead to insecurity for others, creating mistrust and arms competition.

Strengths of Realism

• effectively explains war, diplomacy, and power politics
• Highlights military power and rational self-interest.

Weaknesses of Realism

• Ignores role of norms, ethics, and non-state actors

Key Terms

• Statism: The nation-state is primary actor.
• Survival: The international system is anarchic and States prioritize security.
• Self-Help: No authority guarantees security

Historical Foundation

• Otto von Bismarck
• Henry Kissinger
• Thucydides: power struggles driven by fear, honor, and self-interest.
• Machiavelli: state security should be prioritized, even without ethics
• Thomas Hobbes: without global governing authority, states must rely on their own power

Before Realism

• Realist ideas have deep historical roots.
• Kautilya emphasizes competitive and conflict-driven politics.
• Thucydides highlighted ambition, fear which lead to wars.
• Ibn Khaldun emphasizes that conflict is inherent.
• Machiavelli introduced political leaders in wars for glory.
• Hobbess theorized in absence of authority, humans exist in state of war.
• Theorists driven by power, self-interest, and conflict

Realism in 20th Century

• Began in aftermath of WW I to explore ways to prevent conflicts
• Classical realism emphasized fundamental struggle, driven by human nature
• International system seen with states competing
• Emphasized balance of power as a means to stabilize relations
• Response to increasing threat due to nuclear weapons and global governance

Classical Realism

• focuses on human nature driving power struggles

Neoclassical Realism

• Combines neorealism with internal factors

Neoclassical Realism Key idea

• International system's structure shapes state behavior
• Internal state factors influence how a state behaves
• Domestic influence affects foreign policy.

3 Types of Neoclassical Realism

• Type I: Foreign anomalies combined internal state factors with an international system.
• Type II: Grand strategies emphasize perceptions and calculations.
• Type III: Complete challenge assumptions of structural realism

Neorealism

• State's behavior is attributed to the anarchic structure, shapes state behavior to protect security

Neorealism Shift

• Structure of the international system Influences State Behavior such as transitioning to a unipolar world

Waltz's Structural Realism

• Structure, not human nature, causes conflict. States act to ensure security.

Offensive Realism

• States must pursue power aggressively, may result in ambition
• Defensive Realism
• States must only seek enough pwoer to esure and enusre and survival and avoid aggressive power maximization

View on Globalization

• power states maintain sovereignty due to it
• Threat of force, along with power defines international Relations is in part driven by it
• British exit and vaccine hoarding show state power is still crucial

Social Constructivism

• Relatively new theory with new importance during the 1990s
• Showed agency’s shape of world Politics with 1990s falling of berlin wall that contrasted
• Views of liberalism and realism

Rising Constructivism

• 1980s it became eminent after the ending of cold war
• Previously neorealism and neoliberalism institutionally dominated the fields
• Emphasized material forces of power
• Overlooked norms, ideas and identity Emphasis social forces shaping state interests and Global political landscape

Key Theory Foundations

• Can external and unchangeable view
• Realism and liberalism emphasize regularities and fixed in world politics
• Social constructs world through human interactions
• More room shape international Relations
• social contracts identity evolves over time Social constructivism versus predetermination

Hobbes Core ideas

• Not passive but actions shape the word
• State identity can change over time instead of what comes natural
• Anarchy realitics see help. Alexander Wendt that anarchy what states make of it
• Structure international relations through ways of perceiving anarchy

Key Conceptsof social constructivism

• Norms life cycle, expectations and standards for community
• Norms emerge throughout internal actions
• Influence state behavior and outcomes protection of promotion
• If issues and ideas emphasize through the direction Diffusion and ideas

Constructivism

• Evolving ways institutions reflect roles promoting interaction
• institutions evolving like the UN and NATO development

Social Constructivism and liberalism

• Sharing common ground the idea of potential

As approach ofnot as theory

• Provides the base of politics

Strengths

• Flexible understanding international relationship evolving
• Explains that identity change over providing insights

Weaknesses

• Descriptive not specific outcomes
• Lacks analyzing structers
• United states realism, liberalism Are only seen are non influential ones
• Outside these pushes a view that post colonial and criritcal provide inclusioveness