Introduction to Human Anatomy

Orientation to Human Anatomy

• Anatomy is the investigation of the body's structure and shape, along with its constituent parts.
• Physiology explores the operation and function of the body and its parts.

Levels of Anatomical Study

• Gross anatomy involves the observation of large structures that are easily visible.
• Microscopic anatomy necessitates the use of a microscope to view structures not visible to the naked eye.

Overview of Organ Systems

• The integumentary system forms the body's outer layer, shielding deeper tissues from harm and regulating body temperature. It houses cutaneous nerve receptors, sweat and oil glands.
• The skeletal system supports and safeguards organs by providing a framework and muscle attachment sites, facilitating movement, forming blood cells, and storing minerals.
• The muscular system is responsible for movement, maintaining posture, and generating heat.
• The nervous system acts as a swift control mechanism, reacting to internal and external stimuli while activating muscles and glands.
• The endocrine system controls processes like growth, reproduction, and metabolism by secreting regulatory hormones.
• The cardiovascular system uses blood circulated by the heart to transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes across the body.
• The lymphatic system collects fluid leaked from blood vessels, returning it to the bloodstream and containing immune-related white blood cells while eliminating the lymphatic stream debris.
• The respiratory system ensures an adequate supply of oxygen to the blood, removing carbon dioxide.
• The digestive system breaks food down, facilitating nutrient absorption into the blood, and expelling indigestible remains as feces.
• The urinary system eliminates nitrogenous wastes, regulates water, electrolytes, and maintains the acid-base equilibrium in the blood.
• The reproductive system's primary function is to produce offspring.

Essential Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries involves separating the internal environment from the external.
• Movement includes both locomotion and transport of substances within the body.
• Responsiveness refers to the capability to perceive and react to changes, utilizing the nervous system.
• Digestion encompasses the breakdown of nutrients for absorption.
• Metabolism involves the chemical processes within the body, such as breaking down molecules, building larger molecules, producing energy, and hormonal regulation.
• Excretion is expels waste products from metabolic reactions.
• Reproduction occurs at a cellular or organismal level and ensures the continuation of the species.
• Growth involves increasing cell size and quantity.

Survival Needs

• Nutrients, inclusive of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals, provide the chemicals required for energy and cell construction.
• Oxygen is necessary for sustaining chemical reactions.
• Water, constituting 60-80% of body weight is the most abundant chemical essential for metabolic processes.
• Stable body temperature is essential, ideally maintained at 37°C (98°F).
• Atmospheric pressure must be appropriate for gas exchange to occur.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis entails maintaining a stable internal environment, representing a dynamic equilibrium vital for typical bodily functions.
• Homeostatic imbalance leads to disease.

Components of a Homeostatic Control System

• A receptor functions as a sensor, monitoring conditions and responding to changes in the environment..
• The control center determines the set point, analyzes received data, and establishes the suitable response.
• An effector carries out the control center's response.
• Negative feedback mechanisms counteract variations from the set point, sustaining bodily parameters within their usual ranges.
• Positive feedback amplifies the initial disturbance, driving the variable further from its original value.

Anatomical Terminology

• Anatomical terminology employs specific terms to prevent misunderstanding and ensure precision in describing body positions, directions, regions, and structures.

Directional Terms

• Superior (cranial or cephalad) indicates toward the head or upper part of a structure.
• Inferior (caudal) implies away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure.
• Ventral (anterior) denotes at the front of the body.
• Dorsal (posterior) means at the back side of the body.
• Medial refers to toward the midline of the body.
• Lateral means away from the midline of the body.
• Intermediate signifies being between medial and lateral points.
• Proximal indicates close to the origin or attachment point of a limb to the body trunk.
• Distal means further from the origin or attachment point of a limb to the body trunk.
• Superficial describes toward or at the body surface.
• Deep indicates away from the body surface or more internal.

Body Planes and Sections

• A sagittal section divides the body into left and right parts.
• A median or midsagittal section divides the body into equal left and right parts.
• A frontal section divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
• A transverse or cross section parts the body into superior and inferior sections.

Body Cavities

• The dorsal body cavity encompasses the cranial cavity, housing the brain and the spinal cavity that houses the spinal cord.
• The ventral body cavity includes the thoracic cavity, housing the lungs and heart, and the abdominal cavity, housing the stomach, liver, and intestines which are separated from the Pelvic cavity by the diaphragm.
• The thoracic cavity includes lungs, heart, and the mediastinum which separates the lungs which occupy the right & left cavities.
• The abdominal cavity (stomach, liver, intestines, etc.)
• Pelvic Cavity (reproductive organs, bladder, rectum)
• The Abdominal + Pelvic Cavity together are named the Abdominopelvic Cavity.
• The diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Cells

• Cells are the structural units of all living organisms, with the human body comprising 50 to 100 trillion cells.

Cellular Basis of Life

• The cell theory states that cells are the basic structural and functional units of life, their collective actions define what an organism can do, and they dictate bodily function. Cells are required to sustain life.

Composition of Cells

• The primary cell components are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with water constituting about 60% of a cell's mass.

Generalized Cell

• The nucleus is the command center of the cell, carrying the genetic material, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), essential for protein construction and cell reproduction.
• Key areas of the nucleus include: nuclear envelope (membrane), nucleolus, and chromatin.
• The nuclear envelope is composed of a dual membrane enclosing the nucleoplasm, featuring nuclear pores that regulate substance exchange.
• The nucleolus, contains one or more sites of ribosome production.
• Chromatin, made of DNA and histone proteins, is dispersed within the nucleus and reorganizes into chromosomes when the cell divides.
• The plasma membrane is the external cell barrier which is a fluid mosaic model, and selectively permeable.
• The phospholipd arrangement is constructed of two layers of phospholipids.
• The outer layer orients hydrophilic heads, while the layer interior forms hydrophobic tails.
• Cholestrol and proteins are scattered throughout.
• If proteins connect to phospholipids they form glycolipids; if proteins connect to sugar, they form glycoproteins.
• Cytoplasm comprises the cell's content beyond the nucleus but enclosed by the plasma membrane, hosting the: cytosol, inclusions, and organelles.
• Cytosol is a fluid which suspends elements and contains nutriens and electrolytes.
• Inclusions are like stored nutrients or cell products.
• Organelles are necessary for cell function.

Role of Proteins

• Proteins are vital for membrane function.
• This includes enzymes, receptors for cell communication, and as channels or carriers involved in transport.

Role of Sugars

• Glycoproteins have branched sugars attached, contributing to the cell's extracellular coating.
• Glycocalyx coats the cell with fuzzy, sugar rich surface.

Cell Membrane Junctions

• Glycoproteins function as a cellular glue to attach cells and form a glycocalyx.
• Special cell membrane junctions are bound by wavy contours; they vary structurally and depend on their roles.

Main Cell Junctions

• Tight junctions form leak proof sheets with an appearance like fused plasma membranes, that prevent substances from passing.
• Desmosomes are like rivets, preventing seperation caused by mechanical stress.
• Gap junctions allow communication between cells; proteins form cylinders that allow travel.

The Cytoplasm

• The cytoplasm is a site of most activities inside the plasma membrane, which includes the: cytosol, inclusions, and organelles.
• Cytosol fluid suspends elements and contains nutrients.
• Substanaces stored as nutrients or products that float in cytosol are considered inclusions.
• Organelles perform metabolic functions for the cell.

Cell Diversity

• There are over 200 types of human cells in the body which indicates cells vary in size, shape, and function.
• Cell shapes may vary for their functions.

Cells That Connect body Parts

• Fibroblasts which produce the cable like fibers.
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells) transport of blood.

Cells That Cover and Line Body Organs

• Epithelial cells which pack together and resist tearing.

Cells That Move Organs and Body Parts

• Skeletal muscle cells are able to strenuously contract and shorten.
• Smooth Muscle Cells help allow contractions to shorten.

Cells That Store Nutrients

• Fat cells which store the lipid droplets in cytoplasm.

Cells That Fight Disease

• White blood cells (i.e. macrophages) consume infectious microorganisms.

Cells That Gather Information And Control Body Functions

• Nerve cells (neurons) which transport body messages with receptors.

Reproduction Cells

• Oocytes (female) which develop an embryo.
• Sperm (male) includes flagellum for fertile movements.

Cell Physiology

• Allows for abilities to digest, metabolize, move, grow etc...

Membrane Transport

• Solutions are needed to compose elements.
• Solvent which dissolving medium.
• Intracellular (nucleoplasm, gasses)

Two Basic Methods Of Transport

• Passive processes which involve no energy by membrane.
• Active processes involve the cell's energy.

Types Of Passive Processes

• Diffusion is the high concentration, the less concentration.
• Simple difusion involves no assistance.
• Osmosis is diffusion which may have a barrier.

Types Of Active Processes

• Active transport are the carriers/solute pumps.

Types Of Diffusion

• Isotonic solutions which cause no cell change.
• Hypertonic solutions which contain solutes.
• Hypotonic solutions have lower solutes.
• Facilitated diffusion involves protein channels or molecules.
• Filtration involves solutes to a membrane.

Types Of Vesicular Transport

• Exocytosis secrets/hormones and other products.
• Endocytosis encloses in vesicles.

Types of Cell division

• Cell Life Cycle The changes from the start to the divides.
• Two Major Periods Cell Life Cycle. Interphase metabolic processes. Cell Division Cell reproduces Itself.
• Preparations DNA Replication. Genetic duplicate duplicated cell. Occurs towards The The End Of interphase.

Processs of DNA replication

• DNA uncoils into Two Nucleotide chain.
• Nucleotides: are Complementary. adenine always bon with thymine guanine always connect with cytosine.

Events of Cell division

• Mitosis- division of nucleus. Results in Formation of Two Daughter Nuclei.
• Prophase: identical strands. Centrioles directs.

Metaphase

• Chromosome are aligned.
• The Center of Cell.
• Straight line of chromosomes.

Anaphase

• Centromeres splits.
• Toward opposite Ends of cell.
• Chromosome stop moving.

Telophase

• Reverse in Prophase.
• Chromosomes become Chromatin.
• Nuclear envelope reform.
• Nuclei Appear in Each of The Duaghter Nuclei.

Cytokinesis

• Division Of the Cytoplasm.
• The late Prophase complete during: Teophase.
• Tow Daughter cells exists in Most cases.
• Mitosis, multinucleate cells result.

Protein Synthesis

• Gene DNA Segment. Carries a Blueprint. Building one Protein.

For Triple DNA

• Fibrous (Structural) Proteins.
• Globular Proteins act (Catalysts).

Role of DNA

• DNA never leaves nucleus
• Needs a messenger to build proteins in ribosomes.

Difference From DNA

• RNA single stranded.
• RNA use ribose sugar instead of the deoxyribose.
• RNA contains Uracil.

Tri Variaties of RNA

• Transfer transfer appropriate.
• Ribosomal Help's froms where is are built.
• Messenger instruction for build protein.

Phases Of Protein Synthesis

• Transfer Information.
• Baser Sequence to the Complemerty base Sequence.
• DNA A The is. Template for transription mRNA:is the product.
• Base sequence of Nucleic Acid it translate

Tissues

• Body are the group of cells in the body are.
• Epithelial tissue (Epithelium.)
• Connective Tissue.
• Muscle tissue.
• Nervous Tissue.

Epithelial Structure

• Body converings and body linings.
• Function.
• Hallmarks of Epithelial tissues.

Epithelia

• Cover line body surfaces.
• Avascular.

Number Of Cell Layers

• Simple Epithelial Function In Ansorption. Secretion and filtration.
• Simple Squamous Epithelium.
• Locations are Usually Forms Membranes.
• Function in Diffusion Filtration

2. Shape Of Cells

• Simple Cuboidal Epithelium in Glands.
• Locations:
• Common In glands.
• Covers surface the overies.
• Covers surface of ovaries.
• Function In Secretion Absorption.
• Mucus Membranes ( Mucosae).
• Line body Cavities.
• Function In Secretion Absorption.

Stratified enothelial

• Consist of Two or More Cell Layers.

Trasitional Enothelial

• Composed Of Modified stratified. Composed or modified Stratified.

Glandular Enthlia

• One More Cells Responsible. For Secting Particular Product.
• Secreations cantion Protein Molecules in. and in Active proccess.
• Endoocrine Glands.

Connective Tissue

• Found Everywhere in Connect Body Parts. Includes the Mast Abudant Wide. Function proctect support binding. Variations in Blood supply.

Extra cellular Matrix

• Non Living Material Surrands. Living Cells.

Main

• Ground Substamce.
• Mostly water long with Adhesion. Proteins And polysaccharide Modules.

Fibers

• Colorgen whithe Fibers.
• Elastic yellow Gibers.
• Reliclular fibers (a type of collugen).

Ligaments

• Attach Bone Bone point at to joints.
• Dermis lower layers of the skins.
• And Attach bone to Bone at Joint and more Elasti.

Blood Structure

• Cells Surrounded by fluid Matrix.
• Solubale Fibers.

More Rigid and Fluid

• Bone composred of osteocytes, hard matrix of calcium, and funcions to support.
• Cartilage has less hard matrix, contains chondrocyte major cell.

Types of Cartilage

• Hyaline has collagen and rubber matrix. And it has tracher which attaches ribes to bone.
• Elastic provides elasticity.
• Fibrocartilage, highly compressive and forms pads with bone.

Dense Connective Tissue

• Is Collagen fiber
• Location attach bone is tendons a ligament.

Loose Connective Tissue

• Soft
• Most areolar and adipose.
• Reticular supports.

Blood

Fluid matrix and vascular system.

Tendons

Attach skeletal.

Muscle Tissue

• Function is to contract produce Move.
• Skeletal Muscle tissues.
• Volatary consciusly move.
• Volutary contract move.
• Produce facial Expressions.
• Chatacteristics of Skeletal Muscle Cell.
• Striations.
• Multinucieated.
• long Cyndrical Shape.
• Involutary Controlled:
• Foudn Only Heart.
• Pumps Blood Through vessels.
• Characteristis Cardiac Mucle Cells:
• Striations.
• Short.
• Intercalated discs contain gap: Jumctio.

Smooth tissue

• Control.
• Located walls Hollow Organs.
• Peristalsis is Typrical Activity
• Characteristics Smooth Muscle Cells.
• Shape cells.

Nereous Tissue

• Conduction To Impulse
• Irritability.
• Conductivity.
• Compossed Of Neurons and Nerwe Support Cells

Tissure Repair

• Regeneration are desttroyed tissue.
• Fibrosis Repair dense (Fibroul).
• Connective Tissue Car Tissue).

Wheter regenetations

• Type of Tissue damage. Severity Of The In jury

Events of Tissue repir

• 1 Inflammation Sets Stage.
• Capillaries Become very Permeable. Clotting Proteins Mirate. Clot Walls Off the Injured area.

Events Of Tissues

• Grantation The Stage. Growth New Capillariess . Scab Detches.
• Wether Scanble or invile Depender.
• Sevrity Of Wound.

Tissue That Regenerater Easity

Epithelial .

• Tissues And Bone.

Regeneration

• Skeletal Msucle .
• Replace Scars
• Heart muscle and nerves to spinal cords.

Development

• Growth Through A Cell. Division continues throught Puberty. Cell populations exposed. To Friction such as Enthithlium.
• Replaced costrough out life.

Skeletal System

• Includes all the bones and joints in the body. Bones classified on shape into four group.
• Long bones.
• Flat bones.
• Short bones.
• Irregular bones.


Parts of The Skeletal

• Bones (Skeleton).
• Joints.
• Cartilages.
• Ligaments.
• Axial Skeleton.
• Appendicular Skeleton. Functions Of the bones.
• bones is support The the to support body.

Provide Of Bone

• Protect Soft Organs.
• And Attached Skele Muscles.
• Store Minerals fats. Classification Of Bones.
• adult Skeleton.

Compact bone

• Smooth Homogenenous.
• Small Like bone
• Open Space.

Not Ossees tissue

• Fibress Tissue. Cartilage.
• Adipose Connective Tissue.
• Make Up most of Bone Length.
• And Copolled Conpact Bone. PeriosterimOutside.
• Covening The Diaphusis. Fibress Connectives Membrane.

Markings

• for Muscle tendons longaments.

Catepories Of Bone Marking.

• Projections.
• or indentations.
• Terms open With T The processes
• Or Processes or Cavities Indentaions Term open win T.
• Made Of Of spongy
• Bends And layer compact Tissue.

Articular

Compect The external Surface

• Made OF Cartilage Frication at to joints.
• Epophseal Line .
• Remnant boneadults seen in in bonen

Osteo cytes

• Mature Bome cell,In Bone Matrix.
• Launnae Caities in Bone Matrix, That houses.

Lamella

• Concentric Circless.

Central canals

• Of an Osteon Longwise Through

• Bone carries vessels 
Osteosys A of bone central canals, carriesMatrix bone Structural system. Canaliculi Tny Canals the radriate .connect all to nutrent system . Volkimanns. Canals Perpendicular. the transports lightweight the bone.

• Bone Resistance and Lightwenal to Forces,

Bone Light weight

-The organic Parts Fiber Tensile Organic Strengths. Calcium Salt Bones Hard Resistance Bone Formations Growth in Remodeling. -One Two Majon Bone Long Cartilay Matrix With Bone

One Two Maion

• Bone By Encodment 3 - in a feus Enclosed Medullary. Cavity And With bone cartillage

Bone Growthin

• Length Bone Grows With Bth One. The Is Cartilage Bone Grows here The The bone. Cartilage The New Externalis
• The the cartilage are converted 7 Regtons Long Bone.

Growing.Bone bone remodelling 1, 2 the bone a) Bone remodelling in the the shaft. bone in

• Epiphyses bone matrix. B Growth and in wibes the Bone Growth is controlled in homone. CALCIUM ION REGULATION:
• calcium low.

parathyroid