Introduction to Historiography

Introduction

• History is the study of the past.
• Historiography is the study of how history has been written and presented.
• It examines how events have been interpreted by historians and the methods used in writing history.

Recording History: Before the Advent of Writing

• Prehistory, extending from the emergence of early ancestors three million years ago to 5,000 years ago, includes drawings, paintings, and engravings on cave walls depicting animals and hunting scenes.
• The purpose of these engravings was communication for religious or ceremonial purposes.
• Protohistory marks the shift from oral tradition to the written record.
• Civilizations developed leading to recording activities in institutions such as religion, government, economy and society.
• Ancient Sumerians invented cuneiform, recording tributes received by palaces and temples on clay tablets, and eventually deeds of kings.
• Ancient civilizations used pictography and hieroglyphics, focusing the worship of gods, deeds of kings, and priests in religious contexts. These records were mostly transmitted orally.

The Ancient Historiography

• Ancient Greeks are considered pioneers of historiography, using the works of the logographers as a source.
• The emergence of geography, philosophy, and science influenced the development of mind-reflective history.
• Herodotus and Thucydides constructed and narrated events in 500 BCE, influenced by studying wars, politics, society, culture, Greek city-states, Persians and Romans
• Greek introduced observation, inquiry, and cross-examination to produce authentic historical information that was presented chronologically.
• Logography is derived from the Greek words logos and graph. Logos means story or prose, and graph means write.
• The beginning of logography is seen as the first attempt to write a proper history without using myths. Genealogia (c.490 BCE) by Hecataeus of Greece is an example of logography.

Greek Historiography

• Focused on the ability of humankind to effect changes in society, politics, economy, culture, and philosophy.
• Greek historians wrote a complete history of different people and places and integrated myth and supernaturalism into their accounts.
• Plutarch and Suetonius introduced biography as an important branch of history by describing the character and deeds of individuals.
• Julius Caesar's work Bellum Gallicum was the earliest form of autobiography.
• Herodotus (c. 484 BCE - c. 425 BCE) linked logography and history and wrote the book Histories documenting the Graeco-Persian conflict.
• Thucydides (c. 456 - c. 396) wrote History of the Peloponnesian War with information on Athens and Sparta, maintaining a chronological framework based on reason and eyewitness accounts.
• Polybius (c.200 - 118 BCE) wrote "The Histories" on the decline of Greece and the rise of Rome, glorifying Roman civilization.

Roman Historiography

• Ancient Romans continued historical writings, influenced by the Greek style and using personal observations and written documents.
• Roman historiography focused on political and moral themes, aimed to teach people to become good citizens, and was written in Latin.
• Quintus Fabius Pictor (c. 254 - c. 201 BCE) was the first Roman to start writing history after the Second Punic War, focusing on Rome's history since its foundation.
• Romans wrote two forms of history: the Annalistic tradition, a chronological account from the founding of Rome and the Monographic tradition, focused on single topics.
• Marcus Porcius Cato (c.234 - c.149 BCE) was the first Roman historian to write in Latin, exploring culture and geography.
• Titus (c. 59 BCE- 17 CE), wrote Ab Urbe Condita to glorify Rome without serving in political or military offices.
• Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55 CE - c. 120 CE) cross-checked sources and described the reigns of Roman emperors in Histories and the Annals, judging the actions of men.

Characteristics of Graeco-Roman Historiography

• Focused on struggles and achievements covering aspects of life such as Thucydides’ Peloponnesian War and Livy’s The History of Rome.
• Emphasized government and conflict, intending to record important events to appreciate success and avoid mistakes.
• Used epics, ballads, religious records, chronicles, documents, and inscriptions obtained through personal investigations and eyewitness accounts.
• History served society, teaching people morality and the qualities needed to be good citizens.

The Contribution of the Greeks and Romans

• The Greeks were the first to write history using the scientific method of inquiry.
• The Greeks established the idea and the importance of source in writing history.
• The Greeks were the first people to attempt to write universal history.
• The Romans introduced the thematic study by introducing political and military history.
• The Romans also emphasized treating history as an important part of moral education.
• Functionalism is a theory which states that all the aspects of a society serve a purpose. The aspects of society include institutions, roles, norms, values, and beliefs.
• Universal history traces history from the beginning presenting the whole history of humankind that includes Herodotus' nine parts of "The Histories".

Conclusion

• Historical writing began with the ideas of oral tradition, that followed the invention of the writing system.
• Greeks are the first prose and focussed on people.
• The Greeks encouraged source use.
• Romans only used political and military themes.
• Greeks and Romans built the foundation of historiography.