Introduction to Geography

• Geography is the study of the Earth's surface, including its physical features, human populations, and the interactions between them
• Physical geography focuses on the natural processes and features of the Earth, such as landforms, climate, and ecosystems

Core Concepts

• Location: Absolute (coordinates) and relative (in relation to other places)
• Place: Physical and human characteristics of a location
• Human-Environment Interaction: How humans adapt to, modify, and depend on the environment
• Movement: The movement of people, goods, and ideas
• Region: An area with unifying characteristics (physical, human, cultural)

Earth's Structure and Plate Tectonics

• The Earth is composed of the crust, mantle, and core
• Plate tectonics: The theory that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates that move and interact, causing earthquakes, volcanic activity, and mountain formation
• Plate boundaries:
  • Divergent: Plates move apart, creating new crust (e.g., mid-ocean ridges)
  • Convergent: Plates collide, resulting in subduction or mountain building (e.g., Himalayas)
  • Transform: Plates slide past each other horizontally (e.g., San Andreas Fault)
• Earthquakes: Sudden releases of energy in the Earth's crust, often occurring along plate boundaries
• Volcanoes: Formed by magma rising to the Earth's surface, often found near subduction zones or hotspots

Landforms and Processes

• Weathering: The breakdown of rocks and minerals at the Earth's surface through physical and chemical processes
• Erosion: The removal and transport of weathered material by wind, water, ice, or gravity
• Deposition: The accumulation of eroded material in a new location
• Types of Landforms:
  • Mountains: Elevated landforms formed by tectonic activity, volcanism, or erosion
  • Plains: Flat or gently rolling areas of low relief
  • Plateaus: Elevated, flat-topped areas
  • Valleys: Elongated depressions, often formed by rivers or glaciers
  • Coasts: Dynamic environments shaped by waves, tides, and currents
• Fluvial processes: Actions of rivers and streams that shape the landscape through erosion, transportation, and deposition
• Glacial processes: Actions of glaciers that erode and deposit material, creating distinctive landforms like U-shaped valleys and moraines
• Aeolian processes: Actions of wind that erode, transport, and deposit sediment, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, forming features like sand dunes

Climate and Weather

• Climate: The long-term average of weather conditions in a region
• Weather: The short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific place and time
• Factors affecting climate:
  • Latitude: Affects solar radiation and temperature
  • Altitude: Temperature decreases with increasing altitude
  • Proximity to water: Moderates temperature due to water's high heat capacity
  • Ocean currents: Distribute heat around the globe
  • Prevailing winds: Influence temperature and precipitation patterns
• Atmospheric circulation: The global movement of air, driven by temperature differences and the Earth's rotation
• Precipitation: Any form of water falling from the atmosphere, including rain, snow, sleet, and hail
• Climate zones:
  • Tropical: Warm and humid year-round
  • Temperate: Moderate temperatures with distinct seasons
  • Polar: Cold temperatures and ice cover year-round
  • Arid: Dry conditions with sparse vegetation
• Climate change: Long-term changes in global or regional climate patterns, largely attributed to human activities that increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere

Hydrology

• The study of water on Earth, including its distribution, movement, and properties
• The hydrologic cycle: The continuous movement of water between the oceans, atmosphere, and land through processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff
• Surface water: Water found on the Earth's surface, including rivers, lakes, and wetlands
• Groundwater: Water stored beneath the Earth's surface in aquifers
• Watershed: An area of land that drains into a common outlet, such as a river or lake
• Water resources: The availability and management of water for human use

Biogeography

• The study of the distribution of plants and animals across the Earth
• Ecosystems: Communities of interacting organisms and their physical environment
• Biomes: Large geographic areas with similar climate, vegetation, and animal life
• Factors affecting species distribution:
  • Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and sunlight
  • Topography: Elevation and landforms
  • Soil: Nutrient content and water-holding capacity
  • Biogeographic barriers: Mountains, deserts, and oceans that limit species dispersal
• Biodiversity: The variety of life on Earth, including genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
• Conservation: Protecting and managing natural resources and ecosystems