Introduction to Floriculture

Introduction to Floriculture

• Floriculture can be defined as the science of cultivating, breeding, and marketing flowers

Angiosperms

• The main plant body is a sporophyte, which is diploid
• Sporophytes are differentiated into the root, stem, and leaves

Heterosporous Plants

• These plants produce two types of spores
• Microspores are male spores
• Megaspores are female spores

Significance of Flowers

• Flowers have aesthetic, ornamental, social, religious, and cultural significance
• Flowers serve as the site of sexual reproduction
• Flowers are viewed as morphological and embryological marvels

Flower Structure

• Flowers are modified shoots with a stalk called a pedicel
• The free end of the pedicel is the thalamus, a flattened or dome-shaped modified stem
• A thalamus contains closely spaced nodes with reduced internodes
• It also contains four whorls of modified leaves arranged in circles: calyx (first whorl), corolla (second whorl), androecium (third whorl, male part), and gynoecium (fourth whorl, female part)

Sexual Reproduction Definition

• This process involves the formation and fusion of gametes

Sexual Reproduction Process

• Sexual reproduction in flowers is slower and complex
• It has three key steps: pre-fertilization, fertilization, and post-fertilization

Pre-Fertilization Events

• These events include gametogenesis (formation of gametes) and gamete transfer

Flower Development

• Before a flower appears, hormonal and structural changes occur
• Floral primordium differentiates and develops into inflorescences, which then bear floral buds and flowers
• Afterward, male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) reproductive structures develop

Androecium

• A male reproductive organ consists of a whorl of stamens

Stamen

• Stamen number and length vary among species
• Stamens are equivalent to microsporophylls
• A stamen consists of the filament (a long, thin stalk) and the anther (a terminal bilobed structure)
• The proximal end of the filament attaches to the thalamus or petal
• The connective is the region connecting anther lobes, containing vascular tissues

Anther Structure

• A typical angiosperm anther is bilobed, with each lobe having two theca (dithecous)
• It contains four microsporangia (pollen sacs) located at the corners of the lobes
• Microsporangia develop into pollen sacs filled with pollen grain

Anther Cross-Section

• Shape: Tetragonal (four-sided) in transverse section

Anther Wall Layers

• Epidermis is the outermost protective layer which is single-celled thick.
• Endothecium is below the epidermis, single-celled thick
• During maturation, the outer wall remains thin whereas the inner and radial walls of the endothecium thicken due to alpha-cellulose fibers
• The endothecium contains stomium (dehiscence points) where the anther opens and possesses a hygroscopic nature that aids in dehiscence
• The middle layer is composed of 1-3 layers of parenchymatous cells that store food, but are ephemeral and absent in mature anthers
• The tapetum is the innermost, single-layered, nutritive layer
• Tapetum cells are dense, often multinucleate due to endomitosis
• Tapetum absorbs food from the middle layer to nourish microspore mother cells (MMC) and disappears in mature anthers

Functions of Tapetum

• Provides nutrition to MMC/PMC and developing pollen grains
• Secretes enzymes and hormones
• Secretes sporopollenin
• Secretes pollen kitt substances to protect

Microsporogenesis

• Microsporogenesis is the process of forming microspores from pollen mother cells (PMCs) through meiosis

Microsporogenesis Process

• Each microspore mother cell or sporogenous tissue cell divides to form four haploid microspores or pollen grains through meiotic division or reduction division
• During the initial stage, all four microspores attach together using a callose layer
• The microspores are arranged in a cluster of four cells, the microspore tetrad
• After some time, the callase enzyme dissolves the callose layer and the tapetum secretes it
• Microspores then dissociate from each other and develop into pollen grains
• Thousands of microspores or pollen grains are formed, later released at the time of anther dehiscence
• The most common type of tetrad is tetrahedral

Pollen Grain Notes

• Aeroallergens are pollen grains in the air that cause allergies & bronchial issues (asthma, bronchitis)
• Parthenium (carrot grass) is a common pollen allergen in India

Pollen Tablets

• They are rich in nutrients and used as food supplements
• They are claimed to boost athlete & racehorse performance

Pollen Grain Viability

• Rice and wheat pollen lose viability in 30 minutes
• Rosaceae, Leguminosae, and Solanaceae pollen are viable for months
• Viability depends on temperature & humidity

Pollen Banks

• Pollen is stored in liquid nitrogen (-196°C) for years using cryopreservation
• Used in crop breeding programs which is similar to seed banks

Pollen Grain Structure

• Pollen grains are generally spherical in shape
• They measure about 25-50 micrometers in diameter
• Pollen grains have a two-layered wall: Exine (outer wall) and Intine (inner wall)

Exine (Outer Wall)

• Has a thick, rigid, and ornamented wall
• Composed mainly of sporopollenin, one of the most resistant organic materials known

Sporopollenin Properties

• It is non-biodegradable
• It can withstand extreme temperatures, strong acids, and alkalis
• It makes pollen grains highly durable, helping in their preservation as fossils
• Fossilized pollen grains are useful in locating natural resources like petroleum and coal
• The exine shows unique patterns & designs, which are important in plant taxonomy

Intine (Inner Wall)

• It has a thin, soft, elastic, and continuous inner layer
• Composed of pectin and cellulose

Germ Pores

• Germ pores are certain areas in the exine where the outer layer is thin or absent
• They serve as exit points for the pollen tube during germination

Pollination Adaptation

• In insect-pollinated plants, pollen grains are coated with an oily layer called Pollen-kitt
• Pollen-kitt is composed of lipids & carotenoids
• It helps pollen grains stick to insect bodies, aiding in pollination

Pollen Grain Structure Importance

• Exine patterns & germ pore number help in plant classification
• Resistant exine ensures long-term survival of pollen grains in nature
• Pollen fossils provide insight in geological studies & natural resource exploration

Micro-Gametogenesis

• Microspores (pollen grain) are the first cell of the male gametophyte
• Pollen grain development begins before anther dehiscence
• Pollen grain develops inside the pollen sac of the anther

Pre-Pollination Development

• Microspores or pollen grain develops before anther dehiscence
• The microspore (pollen grain) is the first cell of the male gametophyte

First Mitotic Division

• The nucleus divides into a generative nucleus and a tube nucleus
• The generative nucleus is small and is near the wall
• The tube or vegetative nucleus is large and irregularly shaped

Unequal Cytokinesis

• It forms two cells: a vegetative cell and a generative cell
• The vegetative cell is larger containing the tube nucleus which is responsible for pollen tube growth
• The generative cell is smaller containing the generative nucleus which later forms male gametes

Two-Celled Pollen Grain Formation

• The mature pollen grain consists of one vegetative cell and one generative cell
• In this formation, the generative cell detaches and floats in the cytoplasm

Pollen Shedding Stages

• Pollen is shed at a two-celled stage in 60% of angiosperms
• In 40% of angiosperms, the generative cell divides into three cells (1 vegetative + 2 male gametes)

Post-Pollination Development

• Pollen absorbs sugar and moisture of the stigma
• This leads to an increase in cytoplasm volume
• This also causes pressure on outer layers (Exine and Intine) which emerges the pollen tube

Pollen Tube Growth and Formation

• During pollen tube formation, the vegetative nucleus moves to the tip of the pollen tube
• As this happens, the generative cell follows and divides into two non-motile male gametes

Mature Male Gametophyte Formation

• The male gametophyte becomes a three-celled structure consisting of 1 vegetative cell and 2 male gametes

Cell Division Requirements

• One meiotic and one mitotic division occurs for a mature pollen grain
• One meiotic and two mitotic divisions occur for the mature male gametophyte

Gynoecium

• The gynoecium is the female reproductive organ of a flower
• The unit of the gynoecium is called a pistil or carpel

Types of Pistils

• Monocarpellary pistil consists of a single carpel
• Multicarpellary pistil consists of more than one carpel
• The carpel is equivalent to a megasporophyll, a leaf-like structure that bears ovules

Gynoecium Structure

• The pistil/carpel is divided into three distinct regions
• Stigma is the carpel's terminal part, serving as the landing platform for pollen grains
• Style is the tubular structure connecting the stigma and ovary, guiding the pollen tube
• Ovary is the basal swollen part containing ovules where fertilization takes place

Ovules

• Ovules are integumented megasporangia
• Ovules attach to the placenta in the ovary to develop into seeds after fertilization

Number of Ovules

• A single ovule is found in wheat, paddy, and mango
• Multiple ovules are found in papaya, watermelon, and orchids

Gynoecium Types

• Apocarpous gynoecium has free carpels like those found in Rose, Lotus, and Michelia
• Syncarpous gynoecium has fused carpels like those found in Papaver and Hibiscus

Ovule Structure

• The ovule is also known as integumental megasporangium
• Each ovule attaches to the placenta using a thin stalk called the funicle
• The ovule body fuses with the funicle at the hilum
• The hilum represents the junction where the ovule and funicle meet

Ovule Main Structure

• Ovule main part consists of a mass of parenchymatous cells with an abundance of reserve food material (the nucellus)
• The nucellus contains the embryo sac or the female gametophyte

Nucellus Protection

• The nucellus is covered by one or two coats of protective layers called integuments
• The integuments encircle the ovule except at the tip, where the micropyle exists

Other Key Structures

• In the ovules of most plants, the funicle attaches to the main body of the ovule for some distance laterally thus forming a ridge-like structure known as the raphe.
• Vascular tissues are present inside the funiculus, supplying food materials from the placenta to the ovule.

Chalaza

• The chalaza is opposite the micropyle end and represents the base of the ovule

Persistent Nucellus

• Remnants of the nucellus persist in some seeds like black pepper, beet, and castor
• This residual, persistent nucellus is known as perisperm

Ovule Development - The Beginning

• During initial development, the nucellus starts as a small outgrowth from the placenta
• At this developmental stage, all the nucellus cells are undifferentiated, homogeneous, and meristematic
• These cells then become parenchymatous and are surrounded by a single-layered epidermis

Archesporial Cell Formation

• One hypodermal cell of the nucellus differentiates and increases in size, developing a distinct nucleus (the archesporial cell)
• The archesporial cell then divides mitotically to form a primary parietal cell and a primary sporogenous cell

Megaspore Mother Cell Differentiation

• The primary sporogenous cell differentiates directly into the megaspore mother cell (MMC)
• This occurs at the micropylar region of the nucellus during ovule development
• The MMC is a large cell with a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus
• The MMC undergoes meiotic division to form four haploid megaspores

Megasporogenesis

• Megasporogenesis defines the process of forming megaspores from the megaspore mother cell (MMC)
• Four haploid megaspores are formed, generally arranged in a linear tetrad

Functional Megaspore

• During megasporogenesis, the chalazal megaspore is deemed functional out of the four while the other three degenerate
• A functional megaspore generates the female gametophyte or embryo sac
• The chalazal megaspore remains functional in most angiosperms
• Monosporic development describes embryo sac formation from a single megaspore

Cell Ploidy

• Nucellus is 2n
• MMC is 2n
• Functional megaspore is n
• Female gametophyte is n

Female Gametophyte Development or Embryo Sac

• Mega gametogenesis describes the megaspore as the first cell of the female gametophyte
• During this stage, the megaspore grows in size and obtains nutrition from the nucellus

Embryo Sac Formation

• During this process, the nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei
• These nuclei migrate towards opposite poles, forming a 2-nucleate embryo sac
• With the progress of two more sequential mitotic nuclear divisions, the 4-nucleate and later the 8-nucleate stages of embryo sac are formed
• The mitotic divisions are free nuclear since nuclear divisions are not immediately followed by cell wall formation

Formation of Polar Nuclei

• One nucleus from each pole migrates toward the center, forming polar nuclei
• Polar nuclei locate in the center of the embryo sac

Female Gametophyte Formation

• Following the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down which leads to the organization of the typical female gametophyte or embryo sac
• Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by new cell walls and organized into cells.

Cell Organization in the Embryo Sac

• Three cells form towards the micropylar end: 1 Egg Cell (large and distinct), 2 Synergids (smaller)
• These three cells create the egg apparatus
• Three cells form towards the chalazal end, and are called antipodal cells

Polar Nuclei Fusion

• Both polar nuclei are present in the large central cell
• Just before fertilization, polar nuclei fuse to form the secondary(definitive) nucleus, which is diploid (2n)

Embryo Sac Formation

• After three mitotic divisions in the megaspore, it then forms a 7-celled, 8-nucleated structure
• This structure is known as the female gametophyte or embryo sac of angiosperms.
• Monosporic embryo sacs develop from a single megaspore

Synergids

• Filiform apparatus are finger-like structures found on synergids
• This apparatus’ absorbs food from nucellus and transport it to the sac and secretes chemicals to attract pollen tube

Pollination

• Pollination is defined by pollen grains transferring from the anther to the stigma
• It brings male and female gametes together for fertilization

Pollination - Gametes

• In flowering plants, both gametes are non-motile

Pollination - Adaptation

• Plants have acquired and developed certain adaptations for pollination

Pollination - Agents

• External agents help in pollination

Kinds of Pollination

• Pollination is classified based on the source of pollen: autogamy (self-pollination), geitonogamy, and xenogamy (cross-pollination/allogamy)

Autogamy

• Occurrences are rare in flowers that open and expose anthers & stigma
• Autogamy definition is pollen from anther to stigma of the same flower
• Effect of continuous self-pollination results in inbreeding depression

Autogamy - Requirements

• Synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity
• Anther and stigma must be close to facilitate self-pollination

Geitonogamy

• Pollination between two flowers of the same plant
• Genetic similarity is similar to autogamy when pollen comes from the same plant
• Functional nature, defined as the term cross-pollination because a pollinating agent is involved

Xenogamy

• It has the genetic variation of true cross-pollination that it brings to the stigma genetically
• Xenogamy definition is pollen transfer from another species

Plant Types - Flower Arrangement

• Monoecious plants bear flowers that are unisexual
• Dioecious plant have flowers of each gender on different plants like papaya and date palm.

Monoecious Plants - Overview

• They prevent homogamy
• They bear examples include castor, cucurbits, coconut, and maize
• Male and female flowers are present on the same plant

Dioecious Plants - Overview

• Dioecious flowers prevent both autogamy and geitonogamy
• Male and female flowers are on different plants
• They provide examples like papaya and date palm

Self-Pollination Annotations

• Monocliny (bisexuality) denotes flowers that are bisexual
• Homogamy occurs when both sex organs mature at the same time which also increases chances of self pollination.
• Cleistogamy sees flowers remain closed throughout life while those flowers are cleistogamous

Monocliny

• The flowers are bisexual (hermaphrodite)
• Pea plants provide an example

Homogamy

• Both sex organs mature at the same time
• Synchrony is found in pollen release and stigma receptivity
• This type of adaptation increases chances of self-pollination
• Pea plants provide another example

Cleistogamy

• Flowers remain closed throughout life
• Plants will have chasmogamous flowers which open and expose the flowers as well
• Guarantees seed reproduction without pollinators
• Cleistogamous crops have anthers and stigma close, and undergo self pollination

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cleistogamy

• A key advantage is guaranteed seed production
• A key disadvantage is diminished genetic variation with prolonged inbreeding depression

Bud Pollination

• Pollination occurs before the flower opens, in the bud stage
• Wheat and rice provide common examples

Outbreeding Devices

• Contrivances for cross-pollination can be identified as the following
• Dicliny (unisexuality) involves unisexual flowers that ensure cross pollination
• Dichogamy sees the stamens and carpels not mature at the same time for synchronized reproduction

Unisexuality

• Unisexual flowers prevent self-pollination and ensure cross-pollination
• Self-pollination never occurs in these flowers
• Example: Date palm, papaya

Dichogamy

• Stamens and carpels do not mature at the same time, preventing self-pollination
• Pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronized
• Pollen is released before stigma becomes receptive
• Stigma becomes receptive before pollen release

Anthesis

• Anthesis is the blooming of a floral bud into a flower

Heterostyly

• Heterostyly occurs when the flowers have stamens and styles of different lengths
• Two types of heterostyly are short stamens long style
• The other type of heterostyly is short stamens long style
• Heterostyly prevents self-pollination since the anthers and stigma are positioned differently
• Primrose provides a classic example

Self-Sterility

• This is a genetic mechanism that prevents self-pollination
• It stops pollen from the same flower or plant from fertilizing the ovules
• It inhibits pollen germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil

Agents of Pollination

• Pollination occurs through abiotic (wind, water) and biotic (animals) agents
• Most plants rely on biotic agents

Pollination Factors

• Only a small number of plants rely on wind and water
• The chance factor when pollen grains reach the stigma is dependent on wind and water
• Compensation mechanism produces a large number of pollen grains overcome loss

Wind and Water Conditions

• Flowers do not produce nectar with this sort of pollination
• Flowers are not produced with very vibrant flowers with this pollination technique

Anemophily

• Anemophily is pollination using wind
• Flowers produced with this technique are wind-reliant
• Pollen grains are designed to be dispersed by air and the stigma is designed to trap airborne pollen

What is Required For Anemophily

• Transfer of pollen from one flower to another through wind
• Flowers produced are called anemophilous

Pollen Characteristics of Anemophily

• Plants produce pollen grains in large quantities
• Features of pollen are to be small, dry, and lightweight

Adaptation of Anemophily

• Stigma must be large and feathery and hairy to better store pollen
• Mucilaginous (sticky) flower holds pollen grains

Flower Adaptations in Anemophily

• Stamen must have easy to expose pollen for ease of dispersal via wind
• The majority of plant must be unisexual with no fragrance
• Examples of Anemophily is pine trees, which are common in sulfur showers
• Pinus grains have been shown to adapt well to a wind source
• This pollination technique has been known to be common in grasses with a singular egg per ovary

Other Plants Anemophily is Common In

• Maize (corn), sugarcane, bamboo, coconut, cannabis, date palms, papaya

Hydrophily - General

• This is known as water pollination
• Does not occur in all aquatic plants
• Can be rare among flowering plants

Hydrophily - Main Types

• Hydrophily is classified into two types: surface water pollination and underwater pollination

Surface Water Pollination

• Epihydrophily occurs on the water and relies on dioecious plants to reproduce
• Vallisneria has separated genders
• The female has long coils in its flower stalk to move to the top to be pollinated

Epihydrophily Features

• Pollen moves passively once on the water
• Is able to reach the stigma to begin transfer of genetic material

Underwater Pollination

• It is known as Hypohydrophily, is underwater with the species Zostera, seagrass, and Hydrilla. It typically occurs in marine settings
• Pollination has been found to occur inside the water with female flowers submerged

Hypohydrophily Features

• Can be passive with stigmas which have proven results that allow pollen grains towards pollination
• Is used in water pollination with grains that use a mucilaginous covering to provide them moisture

Biotic Agents of Pollination

• Pollination of biotic agents such as animals is zoophily
• Flowers tend to be pollinated by the insect pollinators
• Certain common insects for plant pollination include moths and bees

Pollination in Plants by Bees

• Bees and some of the larger animals also use the lemurs and lizards as pollinator agents
• Bees are the most dominant form of pollination
• Flowers that are largely attractive have pollinators
• Some flowers can also have specific pollinators for optimum effects

Pollination via Insects

• Insect-delivered pollination is entomophily.
• Honey bees carry out 80% of insect pollination.
• Honey bees are color blind although they do prefer yellow.

Insect Pollinated Flowers

• Insects prefer fragrant and colorful flowers with nectar
• Insects prefer clusters with small flowers

Other Flower Aspects

• Night-blooming varieties use moths to pollinate, are high in scented and are white
• Flowers use dead animal scents to trick insects
• Sticky pollen binds for pollen transportation

Specific Insect Plant Adaptations

• Some specialized plants rely on specific special adaptations only for insect transport for pollen
• Insects transport pollen via fragrance and color

Specific Insect Plant Examples

• Examples of some plants that undergo this fertilization include Mango, Papaya, and Eucalyptus

Unique Insect Special Cases and Methods

• The Yucca has a symbiotic relationship with Pronuba Moths and depends heavily on the moth during its lifecyle
• Amorphophallus depends on laying grounds on their plants

Insect Cross-Pollination

• Enhances the species genetic diversity for greater survival via genetic diversity

Floral Rewards

• Used to stimulate animals to encourage pollination
• Insects use seeds for laying eggs and pollen as a reward for collecting from the right spot
• Insects have also been found to be pollen and robber nectar and without in that case is of no use in reproduction

Orchid and Wasp Collaboration

• The flower tricks the mail wasp into mating with that pollen is carried to the right destination

Insect Pollination of Water

• Insects can pollinate a water environment via plants like water lillies

Fertilization (Defined)

• Fertilization is the fusion of these two sexes and follows the next steps

Germination

• Germination occurs during the stigma as it absorbs moisture sugar to stimulate with the intine layer
• The intine which is located in the inner exine begins germination and pollen reproduction

Tube Formation in Flowers

• Monosiphonous - single form
• Polysiphonous - multiple forms

Tube Function and Growth

• It supports growth downwards and digests through the style
• Allows the generating nucleus cells to begin growing faster in the ovule

Important Fertilization Factors

• Boron is essential with the combination of calcium to enable tube growth from the stigma

Chemotropic Movement and Support

• Complex interactions of calcium create synergid action.

Parts of the Style

• A solid style has a core transmitting tissue.
• A hollow style is a canal lined with glandular cell.

Ovule Entry

• Once the stigma begins to mature in the ovary the action is able to begin

Main entry for reproduction action in to ovule

• Action begins at Micropyle for union

Pollen Pistil Interaction

• Not all pollen causes pollination

Pistil Reaction

• Reaction varies and it can determine whether the plant can receive, allow fertilization, or reject which prevents
• Recognition signals in interactions promote or block with chemical components.

Pollen Pistil Importance

• Allows plant breeders to promote correct fertilization
• Used to develop better crops

Entry Into Sac

• Tube starts at synergid and follows egg apparatus
• Endosomosis bursts the stigma at correct moment and released
• Gametes are released

Release of Gametes

• Two male cells released
• Deteroated vegetative nucleus is released

Gamete Functions

• In the fusion of both polar nucleai of the central cell a diploid nucleus forms with secondary functions
• Syngamy is achieved to fertilize the forming 2n and eggs

Syngamy Process

• Syngamy occurs when one of the male parts fertilizes the correct cell, or correct zygote (2N) during true fertilization

Triple Fusion

• Triple fusion is vegetative fertilization when a gamete joins with a secondary nucleus to then develop the PEN

Angiosperm Reproduction

• Begins fusion with true pollination leading to five nuclei and three gametes, this then releases the Zygote
• Also releases the PEN triploid which feeds the growing embryo.

Event After Z Codes

• Cell division continues which feeds the correct anti-podal and cells that support the process.
• Tube sends the genetic payload, it is Siphongamy and carries genetics to the right spots.

Structures and Events of The Plant

• A series of events occurs via double fertilization and development of each part.

Development of Endosperm

• In double fertilization, the endosperm occurs before embryo development
• the PEC divides forming tissue to hold in reserve

Germination in Angiosperms

• Most plant species undergo this type and requires division on the part to allow nutrients in for embryo sustenance

Cellular Division

• Follows division where endosperm is cellular to start the fertilization

Embryogenesis

• The process of development from zygote

Zygote Location and Endosperm Role

• Must take place at the micropylar end where there is fertilization
• After, the embryo then must get nutrition from what comes next

The Division of The Zygote

• Transversely creates top cells and suspensor cells to feed the micropyler

Division During Embryogenesis

• This requires the embryo and top and bottom suspension simultaneously
• Embryo is for mitotic division via these steps
• Pro Embryo, Globrular, Mature...then there is growth for the plant

Suspensor Functions During Growth Stages

• Pushes new embryo into nutrition
• It is the haustorial cell.

End Results

• Torpedo-shaped
• After the curved position is the axis with one cotyledon when fertilization is finally begun
• Known as Scutellum.
• It is designed with a radicle and axial position ready to sprout roots

Dicot

• Starts the same, different seed shape in embryo
• The structure in dicots and early structure phases are very similar to the monocots

Grass Embryo

• The Scutellum is for protection of the family of axis on their outer side
• Radicle for location on the other side

Enclosed Tissues and Parts

• Contains protective sheathes with the coleorhiza to protect and the coleoptile
• Shoot Apices create leaves

Angiosperm Notes

• Here on after angiosperms begin developing seed asexually with new reproduction mechanisms

Seed Note

• A fertilized product is born and its inside structure is the kernel

What To Include

• The first is seed coat, the second is the endo and a protective side.
• Presence of seeds dictate seed class

Seed Classes

• non endo is where no nutrients are used during creation
• endo-sperm is used for growth
• Castor seeds are exceptions to being used in dicots

Spermatic Reproduction

• Food for this development comes during seed germination.
• This is for all monocots where are thin cotyledons

Final Seed Note

• They create oxygen, small pores and hormones in appropriate conditions

Transformation of Seed

• As the ovule grows, they are more available and simultaneous

Reproduction Methods

• Independent of seed water
• Efficient and are able to disperse
• Protection- has a code to shield
• Genetic Variation

Seed Germanization

• Mainly by types
• Hypogeal remains
• Epigeal grows
• Viviparous rests

Germanization Types

• There is an Elongation
• Hypogeal, this where the plume and roots grows quickly
• Happens in fruit conditions

Fruits - Short Notes

• Is a mature ovary
• Parthenocarpy, seed plants use the fruit to develop, examples are: Banana, and Grapes
• Part of the fruit walls and seeds.

Fruit Growth

• It grows from parts of walls either fleshy or dry there are three walls after the growth.
• Seeds form from what is left in the residue.

3 Walls

• A middle part that gives it the characteristics
• Seeds follow

Types of Fruit?

• True is from the ovaries, or the source parts.
• False comes from the reproductive areas used to produce or grow. Most are syncarpous when they do
• Can be forms when one or multiple plants cluster fruits together

Asexual Reproduction

• new formation without fusion of reproductive products
• Apomixis is the key type that matches all parts
• Are for new species

Reproduction and Importance

• Types of reproduction that produce genetically identical plants from a single parent.
• These occur with the help of stems and seeds.