Introduction to Ethics Week 1 & Meta-Ethics Week 2

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Questions and Answers

How does the utilitarian perspective on environmental issues potentially overlook individual rights?

The utilitarian perspective prioritizes the greatest good for the greatest number, which can justify sacrificing individual rights for the benefit of the majority.

In what way does the utilitarian approach relate to concepts of historical responsibility?

The utilitarian approach suggests that current generations bear responsibility for the environmental impacts caused by previous generations' actions.

What is one potential objection to utilitarianism concerning nonhuman animals?

If humans do not have absolute rights under utilitarianism, it implies that nonhuman animals may also lack such rights.

How does the example of cleaning spilled water illustrate the concept of societal responsibility?

The act of cleaning up spilled water symbolizes the responsibility individuals and societies have to address and rectify environmental harm. Signup and view all the answers

What inherent conflict arises from prioritizing the greater good in a utilitarian framework?

The inherent conflict is that the utilitarian framework may justify harming an individual for the sake of benefiting a larger group. Signup and view all the answers

What does care ethics emphasize regarding moral reasoning?

Care ethics emphasizes the importance of interdependent relationships in moral reasoning. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Normative Ethics?

Normative Ethics focuses on what makes actions wrong and analyzes specific actions. Signup and view all the answers

Define prima facie duties in the context of care ethics.

Prima facie duties are self-evident moral obligations recognized through maturity and understanding. Signup and view all the answers

How do emotions play a role in care ethics?

Emotions like empathy and compassion are considered essential for moral decision-making. Signup and view all the answers

According to Socrates, what leads to true happiness?

True happiness arises when the rational part rules over the appetitive and spirit parts, creating harmony. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of practical wisdom in care ethics?

Practical wisdom is used to identify which duty outweighs others in a given situation. Signup and view all the answers

What does Glaucon argue about ethical behavior?

Glaucon argues that acting ethically isn't inherently good and that it might be better to act unethically while appearing ethical. Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of fidelity relate to care ethics?

Fidelity involves keeping promises, which is recognized as a moral obligation. Signup and view all the answers

In Consequentialism, what determines the morality of an action?

In Consequentialism, the morality of an action is determined by its consequences. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does care ethics differ from other moral theories?

Care ethics recognizes the importance of relationships and emotional factors often neglected by other theories. Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of Utility according to Bentham?

The principle of Utility suggests that actions are right if they maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Signup and view all the answers

What role do past actions play in the concept of promises within care ethics?

Promises focus on past actions rather than future consequences. Signup and view all the answers

How does Mill's Greatest Happiness Principle differ from Bentham's views?

Mill's Greatest Happiness Principle includes both quantitative and qualitative distinctions between pleasures. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it problematic if an argument applies different reasoning to similar cases?

Applying different reasoning leads to contradictions, making the argument self-defeating. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of outcomes discussed in Utilitarianism?

The two types of outcomes in Utilitarianism are egoist outcomes for oneself and state consequential outcomes for the collective. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main premise of Consequentialism regarding moral obligations?

The main premise is that one is morally required to act in ways that would produce the best outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason why humans tend to 'do wrong' according to the passage?

Humans are naturally self-interested and inclined to act for personal gain. Signup and view all the answers

Why might the pain of being wronged outweigh the joy of stealing?

Being wronged causes greater emotional pain than the temporary pleasure gained from stealing. Signup and view all the answers

What motivates people to create a social contract according to the text?

People create a social contract to prevent greater harm rather than out of a genuine value for justice. Signup and view all the answers

How does Utilitarianism define the moral rightness of an action?

Utilitarianism defines moral rightness as the action that produces the most utility, typically interpreted as pleasure. Signup and view all the answers

What two types of goods are mentioned in the passage, and how do they differ?

The two types of goods are those desired for their own sake (like joy) and those desired for their benefits (like money). Signup and view all the answers

According to Socrates, how is justice categorized among goods?

Socrates considers justice to be a good desired for both its own sake and its benefits. Signup and view all the answers

What moral situation does the Ring of Gyges exemplify?

The Ring of Gyges exemplifies the moral dilemma of acting justly when one can act unjustly without consequences. Signup and view all the answers

What are moral principles according to the passage?

Moral principles are general statements that suggest which actions are right and wrong. Signup and view all the answers

What does Kantian Deontology emphasize regarding moral rules?

Kantian Deontology supports justice as essential but disagrees with the idea of absolute, unbreakable moral rules. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three levels of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?

The three levels are Preconventional, Conventional, and Post Conventional morality. Signup and view all the answers

How did Gilligan critique Kohlberg's moral development theory?

Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's focus on abstract principles overlooked the importance of relationships and context, which are crucial in female moral reasoning. Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Gilligan's Ethics of Care?

The Ethics of Care emphasizes relationships and context over abstract moral principles. Signup and view all the answers

What is one major criticism of Kohlberg's study noted in the context?

One major criticism is the lack of female participants, which raises questions about the universality of his conclusions. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'prima facie duties' in Ross's theory, and what is a point of objection against it?

Prima facie duties are responsibilities that are to be fulfilled unless overridden by a more important duty, and the objection lies in the subjectivity of ranking these duties. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Preconventional morality stage prioritize according to Kohlberg?

The Preconventional morality stage prioritizes obedience to authority and self-interest based on rewards. Signup and view all the answers

Why is justice considered essential in Kantian Deontology?

Justice is essential in Kantian Deontology because it aligns with the moral duty to treat individuals as ends in themselves, not merely as means. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by inviolable rights in the context of human and non-human beings?

Inviolable rights refer to the fundamental interests of individuals that cannot be infringed upon, such as the right to live, applicable to both humans and non-human animals. Signup and view all the answers

How does harming others, even without intent, create responsibilities for the perpetrator?

Even without intent, one has a duty to rectify the harm caused, reflecting the interconnectedness of individuals in a community. Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of restricting speech in terms of truth and error?

Restricting speech can lead to oppression and a loss of opportunities to correct errors and strengthen the understanding of truth. Signup and view all the answers

Why is killing a non-human animal considered a violation of inviolable rights?

Killing a non-human animal is seen as a violation of its basic right to live, similar to the moral standing attributed to human life. Signup and view all the answers

What role does phenomenal consciousness play in discussions about justice for non-human beings?

Phenomenal consciousness, or the capacity to experience the world subjectively, is a crucial factor in granting rights to non-human beings. Signup and view all the answers

How does the principle of the greater good relate to individual responsibilities?

The principle of the greater good recognizes that individual actions may contribute to the welfare of the community, but exceptions exist, such as when basic rights are violated. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the connection between scientific findings and moral responsibilities regarding emissions?

Scientific evidence showing that emissions cause harm necessitates a moral responsibility to address and mitigate their impact on the environment. Signup and view all the answers

How can the exchange of ideas enhance the pursuit of truth?

The exchange of differing opinions facilitates the identification of errors and strengthens collective understanding of the truth. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Week 1: Introduction to Ethics

Socrates argued that acting ethically is intrinsically good, fostering harmony between reason, spirit, and appetite.
Glaucon countered, suggesting ethics is a social contract, not a genuine value pursuit.
Different goods exist: intrinsic (desired for their own sake), instrumental (desired for their benefits), and both intrinsic and instrumental. Justice is both.
The Ring of Gyges illustrates the argument that people act ethically only for social consequences, not for genuine moral reasons.
First-order moral views judge specific actions based on factors like consequences and motives.
Second-order moral views reflect on the basis and justification of morality, considering its objectivity or subjectivity.

Week 2: Meta-Ethics: Anti-Realism

Meta-ethics explores the nature and meaning of ethical concepts.
Anti-realism suggests moral facts don't exist objectively.
Relativism, a form of anti-realism, posits that moral values are culturally dependent.
Descriptive relativism describes the diversity of moral views across different cultures.
Normative relativism states that the truth of moral claims depends on cultural context.

Week 4: Normative Ethics: Consequentialism

Normative ethics examines what makes actions morally right or wrong.
Consequentialism suggests the best action maximizes positive outcomes.
Utilitarianism prioritizes the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
Bentham, a utilitarian, focused on quantity of pleasure and pain, while Mill emphasized both quantity and quality of happiness.
Bentham's utilitarianism is quantitative, while Mill is considered a qualitative and quantitative type of utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism determines the best outcome based on its utility, like maximum pleasure or minimum pain.

Week 5: Normative Ethics: Deontology (Non-Consequentialism)

Deontology claims morality is based on rules or duties, regardless of consequences.
Cultural relativism argues individuals' values and behaviors are shaped by their culture, challenging universal human rights.
Descriptive moral relativism describes the variations in societies' moral values.
Normative moral relativism states the truth/falsity of moral claims are relative to the specific time and place.
Mackie's argument suggests morality isn't objective, viewing it as a biological illusion due to variations in societal moral judgments.
Deontology prioritizes intentions and methods, not outcomes; causing harm actively is seen as worse than allowing harm.
Kant's categorical imperative stresses acting on universal principles, treating others as ends in themselves.

Week 3: Meta-Ethics: Realism

Realism argues that moral facts exist and are objective.
Rachels criticizes relativism, arguing that some moral claims are shared across cultures, such as the care for children and the prohibition against murder.
Enoch suggests objectivity is independent of thought or attitude, whereas responsed-dependent truths are true due to our beliefs.
Several tests for objectivity have been discussed, like the spinach test, which demonstrates differences between taste and morality.

Week 6: Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics claims morality is rooted in developing positive character traits.
By cultivating virtues and emulating virtuous individuals, one can live a moral and flourishing life.
Practical wisdom (phronesis) guides moral judgments and actions in specific situations.
Virtues lie between vices of excess and deficiency (e.g., courage between cowardice and recklessness).
Eudaimonia is the goal, representing the best life through virtue cultivation.
Held's care ethics emphasizes interdependent relationships and the importance of emotions like empathy.

Week 8: Applied Ethics: Animal Rights

Singer's equality of consideration grants equal weight to the shared interests of all beings, including animals.
Utilitarianism considers outcomes when determining moral actions for animals, weighing pain, and pleasure.
Speciesism, a bias against animals based on species, is criticized.
Animal rights theories argue for inviolable rights for all beings.
Donaldson and Kymlicka affirm the moral standing of sentient beings.

Week 9: Applied Ethics: Speech and Expression

Free speech is a fundamental right concerning thought, opinion, and expression.
Challenges to free speech include defamation (libel and slander), classified information, and hate speech.
Hate speech can harm individuals and society, undermining inclusiveness and dignity.
Some argue hate speech should be restricted, while others emphasize the importance of free expression as a means for discovering truth.
The "marketplace of ideas" is a concept supporting the importance of unrestrained speech.

Week 10: Applied Ethics: Climate Change

Addressing climate change ethically has challenges due to global, intergenerational, and theoretical complexities like global causes and effects.
The "tragedy of the commons" and collective action problems pertain to collective harm when individuals seek maximum self-interest.
Justice, especially distributive justice, is central for climate change, and historical responsibility is a factor.
Applying ethical theories like utilitarianism or deontology, or incorporating virtue ethics, can help understand and address this issue.

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Description

Explore the fundamental concepts of ethics as discussed in the first two weeks of the course. This includes Socratic views, the social contract theory of ethics, and an introduction to meta-ethics and anti-realism. Dive into discussions on intrinsic vs. instrumental goods, justice, and the nature of moral truths.