Introduction to Ethics

• Ethics is a branch of moral philosophy concerned with studying moral good and bad, right and wrong, and the standards by which human actions are judged.
• Ethics relies on established standards of right and wrong to guide human behavior, in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, and virtues.

Ethical Classifications

• Normative Ethics
• Metaethics
• Applied Ethics

Normative Ethics

• Normative ethics seeks to establish standards of conduct
• A key question is whether actions are judged by their consequences or conformity to moral rules.

Main Categories of Normative Ethics

• Consequentialism
• Deontology
• Virtue Ethics

Consequentialism

• Consequentialism states that the morally right action is the one that produces the best overall value.
• The two core beliefs of consequentialism are:
  • The consequences of an act matter when assessing its moral worth.
  • Evaluation should focus on the overall good for society, rather than individual gains.

Deontology

• Deontology argues that an action is right if it follows the correct rule or duty, focusing on the rightness of the action based on duties and rules.

Principles of Deontology

• Honesty: Always telling the truth, even if it leads to negative outcomes.
• Respect: Honoring others' wishes and beliefs, even when disagreeing with them.
• Fairness: Ensuring equal treatment for everyone, regardless of race, religion, or gender.

Virtue Ethics

• Virtue ethics argues that right action comes from right character
• It uses consequences, duty, or character to determine moral conduct
• Virtue ethics focuses on character and the development of virtuous habits.

Metaethics

• Metaethics examines the nature of ethical judgments and theories, focusing on the logical and semantic aspects of moral language.

Applied Ethics

• Applied ethics applies normative ethical theories to practical moral problems.
• Major fields of applied ethics include bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics, and medical ethics.

Moral Dilemma

• A moral dilemma involves choosing between two or more moral values, where any decision will compromise or violate another moral principle.
• A moral dilemma involves a choice that may include an unpleasant problem where the right course of action is unclear.
• A response to a moral dilemma isn't always about choosing between right and wrong but between two actions that seem moral or ethical.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

• Personal
• Organizational
• Structural

Levels of Moral Dilemmas

• Individual: Conflicts arise when a person must choose between two important values.
• Organizational: Dilemmas encountered by institutions or businesses during decision-making which usually affect more than one person and can involve internal or external stakeholders.
• Structural: Affect a network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms, impacting communities and society at large.

Resolving Moral Dilemmas

• Consider available alternative options, which may resolve the dilemma.
• Choose the greater good and lesser evil, or apply situation ethics by doing the most one can.

Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory

• Lawrence Kohlberg's theory explains how individuals develop their sense of morality over time, consisting of three levels, each with two stages.

Levels of Moral Development

• Pre-conventional Level: Morality is based on consequences.
  • Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment - Actions are judged by consequences, obeying to avoid punishment.
  • Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange - Self-interest guides actions.
• Conventional Level: Morality is based on social rules.
  • Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships - Morality seeks approval.
  • Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order - Laws and rules must be followed.
• Post-conventional Level: Morality is based on abstract principles.
  • Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights - Laws exist for the good of society but can be changed if unfair.
  • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles - Morality is based on justice and equality.

Examples of Moral Development

• Level 1 (Stage 1): A child refrains from taking a cookie due to fear of punishment.
• Level 2 (Stage 3): A student helps a friend to be seen as kind.
• Level 3 (Stage 5): A protester fights for civil rights even if the law disagrees.

Conclusion to Kohlberg's Theory

• Kohlberg's theory illustrates how moral reasoning evolves and helps understand differing ethical decisions at different life stages.

Code of Ethics

• A code of ethics provides principles to guide professionals in conducting business honestly and with integrity.
• A code of ethics outlines an organization's mission and values, how professionals should approach problems, ethical principles, and professional standards.
• Violating the code of ethics can lead to sanctions, including termination.

Common Issues Under Business Ethics

• Employer-employee relations
• Discrimination
• Environmental issues
• Bribery
• Insider trading
• Social responsibility

Types of Codes of Ethics

• Compliance-Based Code of Ethics
• Value-Based Code of Ethics

Compliance-Based Code of Ethics

• Laws regulate issues like hiring and safety standards for all businesses.
• Compliance-based codes set guidelines for conduct and define penalties for violations.
• These codes are based on clear rules and well-defined consequences, rather than individual monitoring.

Value-Based Code of Ethics

• A value-based code of ethics addresses a company's core value system.
• It outlines standards of conduct aligning with the larger public good and environment.

Republic Act 7836 Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

• Article IV: Addresses the responsibilities and expectations for teachers as professionals, regarding teaching as a noble profession, upholding quality education, and continuous professional development.
• Article V: Focuses on teacher's conduct and how they relate with learner's, highlighting loyalty, cooperation, and support for the profession and colleagues.
• Article VIII: Deals with the rights, duties, and relationship of teachers with learners, regarding academic evaluations, welfare of learners, and ethical treatment.
• Article XI: Emphasizes the importance of a teacher's personal conduct, self-discipline, and dignified personality as a role model.
• Article XII: States that any violation of the code can lead to disciplinary actions, including revocation of license, suspension, or reprimand.