Introduction to Ethics

Why Study Ethics?

• Humans are not only corporeal or rational, but also moral beings.
• Human existence is directed towards goals, necessitating freedom to act and choose between alternatives.
• Actions taken to achieve goals relate to morality.
• Humans are unique in their capacity for morality.

Definition of Ethics

• "Ethos" describes a characteristic way of acting (Glenn, 1968).
• "Ethike" signifies the doctrine of morality.
• Ethics is the science of human conduct and pertains to the morality of a human act.
• "Mos, Moris" refers to custom or traditional conduct.
• Morality is the practical application of ethics.

Understanding Ethics

• Ethics is a practical and philosophical science examining the morality of human acts.
• As a science, ethics involves a systematized body of knowledge.
• Ethics is considered a practical science because its principles and laws are applied in everyday life.
• As a philosophical science, ethics uses reason to explore its subject matter through the lens of fundamental principles.

Importance of Studying Ethics

• Studying ethics sharpens one's moral understanding.
• It promotes awareness of moral principles and the laws governing human actions.
• It illuminates the connection between people's moral nature and laws.
• Moral actions may foster a connection with God.
• Studying ethics encourages a morally upright life.
• Ethical norms and laws are vital for harmonious coexistence.

Division of Ethics

• General ethics involves the study of: humans and their ends, human acts, moral norms/laws/principles, and rights/duties.
• Applied ethics delves into individual ethics, social ethics (family, state, church), and societal concerns.

Perspectives on Humans

Greek Philosophers

• Socrates believed humans are comprised of body and soul.
• Plato described the soul as an immediate creation.
• Aristotle held that humans have a substantial form.

Oriental Philosophers

• Lao-Tzu states that one must be virtuous to reach "Tao," (God).
• Confucius identified the "Golden Rule" as the method to reaching happiness.
• Buddha stated that humans should strive for happiness.

Various Notions of Humans

• Humans are perceived as a composite of body and soul, where the soul is incarnated within the body.
• Happiness is considered the highest good.
• Self-knowledge is critical, as death will liberate the soul from the body.
• Humans are rational animals, elevating them above plants and animals through the power of reason.
• Humans are dynamic actors, continuously developing and changing through activity.
• This subjectivity is manifested in the body
• People exist within the world, and are linked to it via their human body.
• This creates an interconnectivity between both body and world.
• Man gives meaning to the world through his perspective, and in turn, can receive meaning himself.
• Man is worldly, or a “Dasein.”
• Man creates, and enlivens the world around him.
• Man’s world can include interactions and relationships with other humans.
• People should not be considered an island.
• Relationships involve a dynamic interaction between those involved.
• The socius is the relationship someone has through their connection to a large group or entity.
• The interpersonal relationship is the one that exists between Man and his neighbour.
• Man is driven to improve, and develop through his journey in life
• He must workout from manhood to personhood, which is reached through education.
• Socrates believed in "know thyself.”
• The person has a task throughout their lifetime to become their best self.
• Man has dignity; created by God, he cannot be described by quantity.
• The monetary values are temporal; Man cannot be reduced to this.

Human Existence

• Human existence refers to being in this world.
• Certainty in one's existence is difficult to prove, yet easy to claim.
• Descartes addressed this with his "methodical doubt,” concluding “Cogito, Ergo, Sum".
• People have indubitable certainty that they think.
• Certainty in the existence of a thinking being has been deemed necessary, with existence implied by the action of thinking.
• Human existence involves consciousness or awareness of one's being.
• The presence of other humans makes man a being with others.
• Man is present among others in the world.
• Man exists in time with a past, present, and future.

Human Existential Experiences

• Experience of "the good" encompasses joy, health, fullness, and life. Humans recognize and seek the good.
• Experience of "the beautiful" notes that people are drawn to both the good and beautiful, directing their appreciation towards them whether in value or action.
• Experience of "love" notes that people are a lover in their capacity to love themselves, others, and God, while also feeling loved by each of these.
• A list of differences show why infatuation is not the same as love
• Infatuation is a sudden emotion.
• Love is the result of time spent.
• Infatuation knows superficially.
• Love knows the other person.
• Infatuation is self-centered.
• Love is other-centered.
• Infatuation separates a person from themselves.
• Love is uniting.
• Infatuation can "love" more than one person at once.
• Love to a singular, single person.
• Infatuation is insecure and filled with anxiety.
• Love is trust in both self, and partner.
• Insecurity seeks to impress.
• Love allows him to be himself.
• Infatuation is idealistic.
• Love accepts their deficiencies.
• Infatuation is irresponsible.
• Love is responsible towards one’s commitments.
• Infatuation makes the physical its centre.
• Love is concerns itself with every part.
• Infatuation is temporary.
• Love is forever.
• Experience of "happiness" notes that it is the goal and crowning point of existence to which man is striving for.
• Experience of "existence" is the sum of good, beauty, love, and happiness.

Man and His Ends

• Human existence has to be an act.
• All acts must be leading towards an end.
• Life would be meaningless if it didn’t have a goal or end.
• The end is the reason why every Human act is performed; it is its raizon d'etre.
• An end is both the means and the goal.
• It completes and fulfills an action, with the intent to attain it.
• Every objective (end) needs an action.
• The end is the final act from Man, thought of and apprehended with the intent of being good.
• Every final act must be seen as desirable, and good.
• It would be abnormal to attempt to attain evil, as it will be desired by no one.
• The good can have different modes of perceiving.
• Utility is the use of the good for its satisfaction, and a relevant object, but it can also be destruction.
• Beauty is a satisfaction of our desires, a combination of both subjective and objective understanding of the appetites.
• Nature, or is real. Goodness has to be completed according to its design.
• Moral good applies to human beings, specifically.
• A good doctor could be morally bad.
• Every person has to be immoral, and this is called immoral goodness.
• Moral goodness is an action; in its best form.
• Good to himself.
• Good to others.
• Good to the environment.
• Good to God.
• He is made and created in HIS imagine, meaning Man cannot be evil.
• Classification of Ends.
• Act; is toward and directly an object of act. Donating can act towards the hunger of others.
• Agent; the purpose, and the ends. A politician’s ends might be all of those to god.
• Giving to him directly, doing it for the people.
• Gratitude to god.
• obtain votes.
• do it out of kindess.
• to do it in reparation.
• to paint the church.
• Temporal ends; are intermediate, means-end, cannot achieve the final ultimate goals.
• Ultimate end; the all-encompassing; all the other goals will not mean it; all goals meet and that ends.
• It is not means for something else, it is its end, end per se
• Supreme Good; It leads to perfect happiness for Man.

Goals Chosen By Thinkers

• Materialistic Ethics; are achieved through pleasure.
• biological - sexual and social pleasures.
• Helvetius is a forerunner for this logic
• Utilitarianism is achieved through the power of politics and conquest.
• Bentham and Stuart-Mill.
• Ultra Spiritualism is a spiritual good, and virtues in life.
• Greco-Roman; Virtue and abstinence from sensual desire.
• Wolff as its proponent.
• Progressive Ethics takes material and spiritual and combines them.
• Aristotle states that he would take to acquire temporal goods, either politically, socioeconomics, and moral progression in welfare of society.
• Kant, Hegel, Comte, Spencer, Bergson
• Christian Ethics is combined of both glory of god, and god salvation of mankind.
• Promises salvation.
• Accepts.

Human Acts versus Acts of Man

• Intentional ends are sought by people.
• Rooted in human intellect.
• Man are animal activities
• Are are involuntary and without free intention.
• Responsibility and imputability is required.

Essential Qualities of a Human Act

• The act must be deliberate; with all intentions known.
• It must be free of outside pressure.
• The agent must act voluntarily.
• Elicited acts are will and are not bodily in involved - Willed
• Commanded is where the body is involved.

Six Elicted Acts

• Wish to do.
• Itenion.
• consent
• Election.
• Use.
• Fruition.
• Both body and mind are commanded to act.
• 1. Internal; purely mental.
• 2. External. Is bodily and deliberate.
• 3. Combination of 1, and 2, like chess.

Human Acts and Responsibilities

• Is helping a man? It has a sense of obligation. To do what you ought to.

Response-Ability

• Responsibility is the capability to answer the appeal for others help.
• If there is deafness to the call.
• Inability.
• Plain bad will.
• goodwill.
• Accountability.
• The distinctions between the states, and responsibility.
• The norm of moral.
• Those against; EVIL
• Neither; both can become evil.
• Internal / External
• Internal has a wrongfulness with that action.
• External may influence.

Voluntariness

• Comes for will.
• Perfect; person has full power, completely free. Ex Eating ice cream or story telling.
• Imperfect; does not have full power.
• Simple.
• Positive act.
• Negative- omitting a habit.
• Conditional. Act of will- but circumstances; not otherwise- robbers demand money.

Directness / Indirectress

• Intended act- directly

• Not intention- in indirectly

• Action to consequences. And held to accountability if it can be forseen.

Double Effect

• If the doer does, or knows of the outcome.

• And can stop that action from happening.

Significance of Human Acts

• They are expressed and desired by the intentions of the actor with free will.
• Condemning the sin, without blaming the deeds- not possible to be evil and not held for that actions.
• Human will; attracted to beauty- and repulsive to those that are evil.
• Intellect chooses, by its rational reasoning.

Free will

• Is those who decide acts according to judgement.

Freedom

• Is the absence of constrictions freedom.
• Modifiers the morality, modifiers influences the accounts.
• Knowledge. Voluntariness. Accountably.
• 1. Ignorance.
• Should has known. easily corrected.

Invited

• No remedy.

Affected

• Escaping Responsibly
• It involuntary act makes it.
• Not morally liable if it cannot aware.
• Decrees decreases it- it increases.
• 2. tendencies to desirable objects. Or to that of undesirable
• Antencdedent; natural rections of happiness
• Consequence. Results of it.
• 1. Passions and cannot act in their own responsibility, but is diminished it.
• Passions that cannot.

Principles and Passion.

• They diminish in ability.
• Increases it.
• Mind mind person confronts with loving others.

Violent with Fear

• Disturbance of mind, that confronts itself to love ones? With fear the mind becomes disturbed.

• Action from it? Involuntary and involuntary? External in commanded acts. Where person resistance and therefore

Is habits

• Readinesesess of repeating. Action and behaviours

• Voluntray in habit if forces.