Introduction to C++ Programming

• C++ is a general-purpose programming language.
• It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
• C++ is an extension of the C language.
• It adds object-oriented features.
• C++ supports both procedural and object-oriented programming paradigms.
• This makes it a hybrid language.
• C++ is widely used for developing system software, game development, drivers, client-server applications and embedded firmware.
• It has high performance and can directly manipulate hardware.

Key Features of C++

• Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): Supports classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation.
• Memory Management: Provides manual memory management through pointers and dynamic memory allocation.
• Standard Template Library (STL): Offers a rich set of generic classes and functions.
• Portability: C++ code can be compiled and run on various platforms with minimal changes.
• Compatibility with C: C++ is largely compatible with C, allowing C code to be integrated into C++ programs.

Basic program structure

• A C++ program typically includes the following parts:
  • Header files: Contain declarations of functions, classes, and other entities.
  • main() function: The entry point of the program.
  • Statements and expressions: Instructions that the program executes.

Compilation and Execution

• C++ code must be compiled before it can be executed.
• The compilation process translates the source code into machine code.
• A compiler such as GCC or Clang is used for this translation.
• The compilation process involves several stages, including preprocessing, compilation, assembly, and linking.

Basic Syntax

• Statements end with a semicolon (;).
• Code blocks are enclosed in curly braces ({}).
• Comments are added using // for single-line comments and /* */ for multi-line comments.

Variables and Data Types

• Variables must be declared before they are used.
• Basic data types include:
  • int: Integer numbers.
  • float: Floating-point numbers.
  • double: Double-precision floating-point numbers.
  • char: Characters.
  • bool: Boolean values (true or false).
• C++ supports various data types.
• Data type examples include int, float, char, bool.

Operators

• Arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /, %.
• Assignment operators: =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=.
• Comparison operators: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=.
• Logical operators: && (AND), || (OR), ! (NOT).

Control Structures

• if statement: Executes a block of code if a condition is true.
• if-else statement: Executes one block of code if a condition is true and another block if it is false.
• switch statement: Executes different blocks of code based on the value of a variable.
• for loop: Repeats a block of code a specified number of times.
• while loop: Repeats a block of code as long as a condition is true.
• do-while loop: Similar to the while loop, but the block of code is executed at least once.

Functions

• Functions are blocks of code that perform a specific task.
• A function has a name, a return type, and a list of parameters.
• Functions can be declared and defined separately.
• Function prototypes declare the function signature.
• The function definition provides the implementation.
• C++ supports function overloading.
• Function overloading allows multiple functions with the same name but different parameters.

Classes and Objects

• A class is a blueprint for creating objects.
• An object is an instance of a class.
• Classes can contain data members (attributes) and member functions (methods).
• Class members can be declared as public, private, or protected.
  • public members are accessible from anywhere.
  • private members are accessible only within the class.
  • protected members are accessible within the class and its derived classes.

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Concepts

• Encapsulation: Bundling of data and methods that operate on that data within a class, protecting the data from outside access.
• Inheritance: A mechanism by which a class can inherit properties and methods from another class.
• Polymorphism: The ability of an object to take on many forms.
• Abstraction: Hiding complex implementation details and showing only necessary information to the user.

Inheritance

• Inheritance allows a class (derived class) to inherit properties and methods from another class (base class).
• Types of inheritance include:
  • Single inheritance: A class inherits from only one base class.
  • Multiple inheritance: A class inherits from multiple base classes.
  • Hierarchical inheritance: Multiple classes inherit from a single base class.
  • Multilevel inheritance: A class inherits from a derived class, which in turn inherits from another base class.

Polymorphism

• Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to respond to the same method call in their own way.
• Types of polymorphism include:
  • Compile-time polymorphism (static polymorphism): Achieved through function overloading and operator overloading.
  • Run-time polymorphism (dynamic polymorphism): Achieved through virtual functions and inheritance.

Pointers

• A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable.
• Pointers are declared using the asterisk (*) symbol.
• The address-of operator (&) is used to get the address of a variable.
• The dereference operator (*) is used to access the value stored at the address held by a pointer.
• Pointers are used for dynamic memory allocation.

Dynamic Memory Allocation

• C++ provides dynamic memory allocation using the new and delete operators.
• The new operator allocates memory at runtime.
• The delete operator releases dynamically allocated memory.
• Memory leaks can occur if dynamically allocated memory is not properly released.

Standard Template Library (STL)

• The STL is a set of template classes and functions that provide common data structures and algorithms.
• The STL includes containers, iterators, algorithms, and function objects.
• Containers are data structures that store collections of objects.
• Examples of containers include:
  • vector: A dynamic array.
  • list: A doubly-linked list.
  • deque: A double-ended queue.
  • set: A collection of unique elements.
  • map: A collection of key-value pairs.
• Iterators are used to access and traverse elements in containers.
• Algorithms provide functions for sorting, searching, and manipulating data in containers.

Exception Handling

• Exception handling is a mechanism for dealing with errors that occur during program execution.
• C++ provides try, catch, and throw keywords for exception handling.
• Code that may throw an exception is placed in a try block.
• If an exception occurs, the catch block is executed.
• The throw keyword is used to throw an exception.

Input/Output Streams

• C++ uses streams for performing input and output operations.
• cin is used for input from the keyboard.
• cout is used for output to the console.
• cerr is used for error output to the console.
• Streams can be used to read from and write to files.

Namespaces

• Namespaces provide a way to organize code and avoid naming conflicts.
• The using namespace directive allows you to use names from a namespace without qualification.
• The std namespace contains the standard C++ library.
• You can create your own namespaces to group related classes and functions.

Preprocessor Directives

• Preprocessor directives are instructions that are executed before the code is compiled.
• Common preprocessor directives include:
  • #include: Includes the contents of a header file.
  • #define: Defines a macro.
  • #ifdef, #ifndef, #endif: Conditional compilation directives.

Object Oriented Programming

• OOP is a programming paradigm based on objects that contain data and code
• OOP includes encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism

Memory Management

• C++ provides manual memory management capabilities via usage of pointers
• Dynamic memory is managed using the new and delete operators, which can lead to memory leaks if not used carefully

Templates

• Templates support generic programming
• Templates enable writing code that can work with different data types without being rewritten for each type
• Function and class templates are supported

Operator Overloading

• Operator overloading allows users to redefine the meaning of operators when applied to user-defined types such as class objects
• Most operators (e.g., +, -, *, /, ==, !=) can be overloaded

File I/O

• File I/O in C++ is managed using streams
• Classes such as ifstream (input file stream) and ofstream (output file stream) are used for performing read and write operations on files