Introduction to Biology

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• Biology is the scientific study of life

Core Principles of Biology

• Cell theory states that the cell is the basic unit of life
• Genes are the basic units of heredity
• Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life
• Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a stable internal environment
• Living organisms acquire and utilize energy

Levels of Biological Organization

• Atoms are the fundamental units of matter
• Molecules consist of two or more atoms
• Organelles are structures within cells that perform specific functions
• Cells are the basic units of life
• Tissues are groups of similar cells performing a specific function
• Organs are structures composed of different tissues
• Organ systems consist of multiple organs working together
• Organisms are individual living entities
• Populations are groups of individuals of the same species
• Communities consist of different populations living together
• Ecosystems include communities and their physical environment
• The biosphere encompasses all ecosystems on Earth

Cell Structure and Function

• Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
• Eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier
• The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material (DNA)
• Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in protein and lipid synthesis
• The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins
• Lysosomes contain enzymes for intracellular digestion
• Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, producing ATP
• Chloroplasts (in plant cells) are the sites of photosynthesis

Genetics

• DNA is the genetic material that carries hereditary information
• Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific traits
• Chromosomes are structures containing DNA
• DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself
• Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from DNA
• Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from RNA
• Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence

Evolution

• Evolution is the change in the genetic makeup of a population over time
• Natural selection is the process by which organisms with favorable traits survive and reproduce
• Adaptation is the process by which organisms become better suited to their environment
• Speciation is the process by which new species arise
• Evidence for evolution includes fossils, comparative anatomy, and molecular biology

Taxonomy and Classification

• Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms
• The Linnaean system of classification includes: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
• The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

Ecology

• Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment
• Populations are groups of individuals of the same species
• Communities consist of different populations living together
• Ecosystems include communities and their physical environment
• The biosphere encompasses all ecosystems on Earth
• Food chains and food webs describe the flow of energy through an ecosystem
• Trophic levels represent the position of an organism in a food chain
• Symbiosis includes mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism
• Biomes are large geographic areas with similar climate and vegetation

Plant Biology

• Plants are autotrophs that produce their own food through photosynthesis
• Plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose
• Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) transport water and nutrients
• Roots anchor the plant and absorb water and nutrients
• Stems provide support and transport
• Leaves are the primary sites of photosynthesis
• Flowers are the reproductive structures of plants
• Fruits develop from flowers and contain seeds
• Plant life cycles involve alternation of generations (sporophyte and gametophyte)

Animal Biology

• Animals are heterotrophs that obtain food by consuming other organisms
• Animal cells lack cell walls
• Tissues include epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues
• Organs are composed of different tissues
• Organ systems include circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory, nervous, endocrine, skeletal, muscular, and reproductive systems
• Animals can be invertebrates (lacking a backbone) or vertebrates (having a backbone)

Microbiology

• Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, and protozoa
• Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms
• Archaea are prokaryotic organisms often found in extreme environments
• Viruses are non-cellular entities that require a host to reproduce
• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that obtain nutrients by absorption
• Protozoa are eukaryotic organisms that are typically unicellular
• Microorganisms play important roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition, and disease

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment
• Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological processes
• Negative feedback reduces the effect of a stimulus
• Positive feedback amplifies the effect of a stimulus
• Examples of homeostatic control include temperature regulation, blood glucose regulation, and pH balance

Energy and Metabolism

• Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
• Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules
• Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of the cell
• Cellular respiration is the process of converting glucose into ATP
• Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy into chemical energy

Reproduction and Development

• Asexual reproduction involves a single parent
• Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the fusion of gametes
• Gametes are haploid cells (sperm and egg)
• Fertilization is the fusion of gametes to form a zygote
• Development involves cell division, differentiation, and morphogenesis
• Embryonic development includes stages such as cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis

Immunology

• Immunology is the study of the immune system
• The immune system protects the body from pathogens
• Innate immunity provides immediate, non-specific protection
• Adaptive immunity provides specific, long-lasting protection
• Antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to antigens
• T cells and B cells are lymphocytes involved in adaptive immunity
• Vaccines stimulate the immune system to develop immunity to a specific pathogen