Introduction to Art History
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Questions and Answers

What does the term 'form' refer to in art history?

  • The historical context of the artwork
  • The emotional impact of the artwork
  • The narrative conveyed through the artwork
  • The physical and visual characteristics of the artwork (correct)

    • Which of the following is NOT a physical characteristic of an artwork's form?

  • Medium
  • Composition (correct)
  • Dimensions
  • Material

    • In art history, what does 'content' specifically refer to?

  • The historical significance of the artwork
  • The medium used to create the artwork
  • The physical attributes of the artwork
  • The themes and subject matter conveyed in the artwork (correct)

    • Which of the following best describes 'context' in art history?

    <p>The historical circumstances surrounding the artwork's production or reception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a visual characteristic of an art object's form?

    <p>Line</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What encompasses both subject matter and themes in an artwork?

    <p>Content</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements would NOT be considered when analyzing an artwork's form?

    <p>Theme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic describes how an art object physically occupies space?

    <p>Dimension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Paleolithic' refer to in the context of prehistoric art?

    <p>The Old Stone Age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which material is most commonly associated with Paleolithic sculptures?

    <p>Limestone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What period does the Neolithic era cover?

    <p>c. 6,500 BCE - 2,300 BCE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The sculpture known as the Woman from Willendorf was created around which year?

    <p>c. 24,000 BCE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant achievement defines the period known as prehistory?

    <p>The invention of writing systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main elements of art history in regards to an art object?

    <p>Form, Content, Context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When considering the context of an art object, which question would be the most relevant?

    <p>What was the political climate at the time of its creation?</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of an art object does 'form' refer to?

    <p>The physical and visual characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'content' of an art object communicate?

    <p>The underlying message or meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a question to consider when analyzing the context of an art object?

    <p>What colors were used in the artwork?</p> Signup and view all the answers

    To understand the function of an art object, which three components must be analyzed together?

    <p>Form, Content, Context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to know about the patron of an art object?

    <p>It provides insight into the historical context and motivations for its creation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following components of art history would focus on the physical and visual characteristics of an artwork?

    <p>Form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary subject matter of Paleolithic cave paintings?

    <p>Animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique was NOT used by Paleolithic artists for creating cave art?

    <p>Engraving on wood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What material was primarily used as pigment in Paleolithic art?

    <p>Ocher</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cave is known for its significant wall paintings dating back to 32,000-30,000 BCE?

    <p>Chauvet Cave</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a common feature of the wall paintings in Chauvet Cave?

    <p>Illusion of movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What purpose did wooden scaffolds serve in the creation of cave art?

    <p>To reach high walls for painting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following animals was NOT mentioned as a subject in Paleolithic cave paintings?

    <p>Tigers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the predominant color used in cave paintings found in Chauvet Cave?

    <p>Black</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What geographical area does Mesopotamia refer to?

    <p>Land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which period marks the development of city-states in Mesopotamia?

    <p>4000-3000 BCE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What material was primarily used to create the Votive Worshippers from Eshnunna?

    <p>Limestone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary architectural form associated with Sumer?

    <p>Ziggurat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the artistic convention that indicates importance in scale?

    <p>Hieratic scale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which civilization is NOT one of the main focuses of the Ancient Near East discussed?

    <p>Egypt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the Assyrian ruler known for establishing the capital at Kalhu?

    <p>Assurnasirpal II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What material was primarily used to construct the Nanna Ziggurat?

    <p>Mud brick</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable feature of the palace walls during Assurnasirpal II's rule?

    <p>Sculptural relief in alabaster</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the original height range of the Nanna Ziggurat?

    <p>20-30 m</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate height of the largest Votive Worshipper figure?

    <p>76.3 cm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary purpose of the ziggurat in Sumerian society?

    <p>It acted as a spiritual center and meeting place with the gods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of society ruled Sumer during the time of the ziggurats?

    <p>A society governed by priest-kings claiming divine authority.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which time frame did the Sumer civilization primarily exist?

    <p>3500-2340 BCE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the modern-day location of the ancient site of Eshnunna?

    <p>Iraq</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the agricultural resources of Mesopotamia affect its political stability?

    <p>It made the region vulnerable to political upheaval.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which goddess was the Nanna Ziggurat at Ur dedicated to?

    <p>Nanna, the moon goddess.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the construction methods used for fortifying Kalhu?

    <p>Mud-brick walls</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of cuneiform writing developed around 2600 BCE?

    <p>It marked a development in writing that recorded a spoken language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where were clay tablets with cuneiform writing housed in Sumer?

    <p>In temples located at the base of ziggurats.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What materials were primarily used in the creation of votive figures from c. 2900–2600 BCE?

    <p>Limestone, alabaster, and gypsum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'polytheistic' imply about Sumerian beliefs?

    <p>They worshipped multiple gods and goddesses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the original height of the Nanna Ziggurat?

    <p>20-30 meters.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the Assyrian ruler known for his lion hunting reliefs?

    <p>Assurnasirpal II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant architectural project did Darius I start around 515 BCE?

    <p>The city of Persepolis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what material were many of the significant works by Assurnasirpal II and Assurbanipal created?

    <p>Alabaster</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term best describes the aesthetic quality of artworks created by Assurnasirpal II in comparison to static forms?

    <p>Dynamic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate height of the 'Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions' relief?

    <p>99.1 cm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following rulers was known for the depiction of his and his queen in a garden setting?

    <p>Assurbanipal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature characterizes the Apadana, built during Darius I's reign?

    <p>Audience Hall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Between which years did Assurbanipal rule?

    <p>687-627 BCE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a primary artistic purpose of the Ashoka pillars?

    <p>To communicate Buddhist messages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animal is MOST commonly found atop the Ashoka pillars?

    <p>Lion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of stone was primarily used for the shaft of the Ashoka pillars?

    <p>A single piece of stone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the inverted lotus flower symbolize in Buddhist culture?

    <p>Achievement of Enlightenment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following inscriptions was NOT found on the Ashoka pillars?

    <p>Philosophical teachings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which region did Ashoka’s empire primarily extend?

    <p>Northern India and areas including Nepal and Pakistan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The script used on Ashokan edicts primarily developed into which influence on modern languages?

    <p>Brahmi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Hinayana' refer to in the context of Buddhism?

    <p>The early stage before Mahayana Buddhism developed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What motivated Ashoka's dramatic conversion to Buddhism?

    <p>Witnessing the destruction caused by the Kalinga conquest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the Four Noble Truths related to in Buddhism?

    <p>The cycle of life and rebirth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant concept do ashoka pillars represent in both Buddhism and Hinduism?

    <p>The axis mundi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What intent did Ashoka have with the placement of the edicts?

    <p>To inform and educate his people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Ashoka choose to communicate his message across a vast region?

    <p>Through the creation of towering pillars with inscriptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What philosophy did Ashoka embrace that guided his reign?

    <p>Buddhist ethics and compassion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What were the Six Cardinal Perfections (Pāramitās) intended for?

    <p>To guide Buddhist practitioners in compassionate living</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was NOT a characteristic of Ashoka's rule?

    <p>The establishment of Buddhism as the state religion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the geographical region where Ashoka's pillars were primarily erected?

    <p>Northern India, specifically the Magadha region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Ashoka’s conversion affect the spread of Buddhism?

    <p>It facilitated the rapid spread and acceptance of Buddhism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the main cause of suffering according to Buddha's teachings?

    <p>Desire and attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What action did Ashoka take to avoid requiring all subjects to convert to Buddhism?

    <p>He practiced tolerance for other religions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is represented by the four animals carved on the drum of the Lion Capital?

    <p>The four cardinal directions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What element of the Lion Capital symbolizes royalty and leadership?

    <p>The four lions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant role does the Lion Capital play in modern India?

    <p>It is the national emblem of India</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element above the lions was originally part of the Lion Capital?

    <p>A cakra (wheel)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Lion Capital symbolize in relation to the Buddha's teachings?

    <p>The spread of the dharma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'stupa' originally mean in Sanskrit?

    <p>Heap</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the stupa symbolizes the head of the Buddha?

    <p>The pole at the apex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a primary purpose of burial mounds before the introduction of stupas in Buddhism?

    <p>To bury great teachers, including some in meditation posture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sites was NOT associated with the burial of the Buddha's ashes?

    <p>Kolkata</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the middle portion of a stupa represent?

    <p>The Buddha's body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What essential item must you bring to avoid receiving a zero on the Midterm Exam?

    <p>A pencil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a ✔ signify in in-class activity grading?

    <p>The activity has been properly completed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic does 'Humanism' reflect in Ancient Greece?

    <p>Emphasis on human form and experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes 'Idealism' in the context of Ancient Greek art?

    <p>It upholds the belief in creating perfect forms from nature.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which period was the Anavysos Kouros created?

    <p>Archaic Period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What height is typically associated with the Anavysos Kouros?

    <p>1.93 m</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which description accurately reflects the concept of 'Rationalism' in Ancient Greece?

    <p>It promotes the use of logic and critical thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should students remember to bring alongside a pencil for the Midterm Exam?

    <p>An eraser</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic distinguishes the Anavysos Kouros from the Egyptian sculpture of Menkaure?

    <p>The style of representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the height of the Anavysos Kouros?

    <p>It indicates the importance of the figure represented</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which period does the Spear Bearer (Doryphoros) belong to?

    <p>Classical Period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the Spear Bearer reflects the ideals of the Classical Greek period?

    <p>Its portrayal of movement and realistic anatomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What artistic concept is demonstrated by Polykleitos' Spear Bearer through its proportionate representation of the human body?

    <p>Canon of proportions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What material was primarily used for the original Spear Bearer sculpture?

    <p>Bronze</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Anavysos Kouros differ visually from the Menkaure sculpture?

    <p>The Kouros has an exaggerated form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term best describes the stylistic position of the Spear Bearer that emphasizes an idealized form of the human body?

    <p>Idealization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Parthenon in Athens?

    <p>A temple dedicated to the goddess Athena</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor primarily influenced the design of both the Anavysos Kouros and Egyptian sculptures?

    <p>Religious purpose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physical characteristic of the Spear Bearer distinguishes it from the earlier Anavysos Kouros?

    <p>Contrapposto stance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The term 'contrapposto' refers to which aspect of the Spear Bearer’s posture?

    <p>A stance with weight shifted onto one leg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which artistic technique is highlighted in the transition from the Anavysos Kouros to the Spear Bearer?

    <p>Increased realism in human form</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which architectural style is represented by the structure of the Parthenon?

    <p>Greek Orders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature is essential to the construction technique used in the Parthenon?

    <p>Post and lintel system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common visual feature of the sculptures from the Archaic Period?

    <p>Rigid and frontal presentation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic of the Spear Bearer is emphasized by its height of 2.12 m?

    <p>Monumentality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of style, how does the Spear Bearer exemplify the High Classical Period?

    <p>By focusing on realistic emotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When was the Parthenon constructed?

    <p>c. 447–432 BCE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Acropolis in Athens known for?

    <p>The location of significant ancient temples including the Parthenon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the Spear Bearer's approach to representing human anatomy?

    <p>Mathematical perfection through ratios</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What visual characteristic distinguishes the Spear Bearer as a naturalistic representation?

    <p>Realistic portrayal of motion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the idealization in the Spear Bearer have on the viewer's perception?

    <p>Inspires awe and admiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Spear Bearer's historical context contribute to its artistic significance in Greek culture?

    <p>It embodies the values of the High Classical Period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What period does Polykleitos' Spear Bearer belong to?

    <p>High Classical Period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic best describes the representation in Polykleitos' Spear Bearer?

    <p>Naturalistic with idealized proportions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary material used for the Roman copy of Polykleitos' Spear Bearer?

    <p>Marble</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of height, how does Polykleitos' Spear Bearer compare to Laocoön and His Sons?

    <p>Taller than Laocoön</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cultural ideal does the Spear Bearer best represent?

    <p>Beauty and athleticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Doryphoros' translate to in English?

    <p>The Spear Bearer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who are the sculptors responsible for creating Laocoön and His Sons?

    <p>Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athanodoros</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best differentiates the High Classical Period from the Hellenistic Period?

    <p>More focus on emotional expression in subjects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one primary difference between the original Greek work and its Roman copy?

    <p>The materials used differ</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sculpture is known for showcasing the tension among its figures?

    <p>Laocoön and His Sons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What materials were used to create the Augustus of Primaporta statue?

    <p>Marble and originally painted</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which title was granted to Augustus by the Roman Senate in 27 BCE?

    <p>Augustus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant battle did Augustus defeat Cleopatra?

    <p>Battle of Actium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Pax Romana' refer to?

    <p>A long period of peace in the Roman Empire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable physical characteristic of the Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors?

    <p>It is made of marble.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which architectural feature is least likely associated with the Roman Empire during Augustus's time?

    <p>Ziggurats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why was the Augustus of Primaporta statue created?

    <p>To emphasize his divine right to rule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What height does the Augustus of Primaporta reach?

    <p>2.03 m</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should a student NOT bring to the midterm exam?

    <p>A pen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who initiated the construction of the Colosseum?

    <p>Emperor Vespasian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What year range marks the construction of the Colosseum?

    <p>72-80 CE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What materials were primarily used in the construction of the Colosseum?

    <p>Concrete and marble</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the height of the Colosseum?

    <p>48 m</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who completed the construction of the Colosseum after Vespasian?

    <p>Emperor Titus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which architectural feature is prominently associated with the design of the Colosseum?

    <p>Round arch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which historical figure was active during the early stages of the Colosseum's construction?

    <p>Vespasian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what city is the Colosseum located?

    <p>Rome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary purpose of the Colosseum during the Roman Empire?

    <p>Gladiatorial contests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What monumental structure was built nearly simultaneously with the Colosseum and is notable for its classical style?

    <p>The Pantheon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the purpose of the bronze sculpture of Augustus?

    <p>To commemorate the military victories of Augustus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which material was used to create the Ara Pacis?

    <p>Marble</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a distinctive feature of the Imperial Procession relief sculpture on the Ara Pacis?

    <p>It includes a variety of human figures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the height of the Augustus of Primaporta compare to the height of the Spear Bearer?

    <p>Spear Bearer is taller by 9 cm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What historical significance does the Ara Pacis hold?

    <p>It celebrates military victories and peace.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What artistic style is the Augustus of Primaporta often compared to?

    <p>Classical Greek sculpture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature of Augustus is emphasized in the Primaporta statue?

    <p>His divine descent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of Roman sculptures set them apart from earlier styles?

    <p>Realism and emotional expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What purpose did the design of the Ara Pacis serve in Roman society?

    <p>To celebrate the peace brought by Augustus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate size of the Ara Pacis?

    <p>10.5 x 11.6 m</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Art History

    • Art history is the study of art objects' form, content, and context.

    Form

    • Form refers to the physical and visual characteristics of an art object.
    • Physical characteristics include medium, material, and dimensions.
    • Visual characteristics include line, shape, form, color, texture, space, and composition.

    Content

    • Content is the communication of the art object.
    • Content refers to the subject matter (a woman, a tree, a specific story) and the theme (love, power, death).

    Context

    • Context refers to the historical circumstances- time and place -- of the production and reception of the art object.
    • To understand the context, we ask questions such as:
      • Where and when was the art object made?
      • What are the relevant political, social, religious, and intellectual cultures at the time?
      • What is known about the artist and the patron?
      • Why did the patron commission the art object?
      • Where was the art object originally displayed?
      • Who were the original intended viewers?

    Prehistory

    • Prehistory refers to the period before writing systems.
    • It is the period before the existence of written documents.

    Stone Age

    • The Stone Age refers to the Prehistoric period.

    Paleolithic Era

    • Paleolithic refers to Old Stone Age (c. 42,000 BCE - 8,000 BCE).
    • Paleolithic art mainly focuses on sculpture.

    Neolithic Era

    • Neolithic refers to New Stone Age (c. 6,500 BCE - 2,300 BCE).

    Cave Paintings: Subjects

    • Animals were the main subject of Paleolithic cave paintings.
    • Some common subjects include:
      • Rhinoceros
      • Wooly mammoth
      • Lion
      • Bison
      • Bull
      • Deer
      • Horse

    Chauvet Cave

    • Chauvet Cave (c. 32,000- 30,000 BCE)
    • Cave paintings were located deep within the caves.
    • The cave paintings are on limestone and use black pigment.

    Creating Cave Art

    • Ground up ocher was mixed with water.
    • Large flat stones served as containers for the mixture.
    • Paint was applied with brushes made from reeds, bristles, or twigs.
    • It could also be sprayed from a blowpipe made from a reed or hollow bone.
    • A wooden scaffold was used to create high walls.

    Color and Line

    • Cave art uses color and line.
    • Examples include the Lion Panel and paintings with mammoths and horses.

    Illusion of Movement

    • The cave paintings, especially the Lion Panel, create an illusion of movement using color and line.

    Sumer

    • Sumerian cities were ruled by priest-kings who claimed to rule in the name of the gods.
    • City-states considered the ziggurat to be the spiritual center.
    • The ziggurat served as a meeting place between the people and their gods.
    • Sumer had a polytheistic society.
    • Nanna, the moon goddess, was worshipped in the Nanna Ziggurat at Ur.

    Writing

    • Sumerians invented writing, which evolved between 3200-3100 BCE.
    • Originally, they used pictographs that represented a single word or phrase.
    • Around 2600 BCE, cuneiform writing was developed, utilizing a stylus to create wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets.
    • Clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform were stored inside the temples on top of ziggurats.

    Votive Worshippers

    • Votive worshippers were sculptures created between 2900–2600 BCE.
    • Constructed from limestone, alabaster, and gypsum, they are believed to have been offerings to the gods.
    • The Votive Worshippers sculpture exemplifies the “hieratic scale” principle which denotes the importance of a figure through its size.
    • The sculpture also illustrates the concept of “artistic convention” by depicting the figures in a stylized and formal manner.

    Assyria

    • The Assyrians rose to prominence in Northern Mesopotamia around 1400 BCE.
    • Assurnasirpal II, who ruled from 883-859 BCE, established his capital city at Kalhu (modern Nimrud, Iraq).
    • He constructed a fortified city, incorporating mud-brick walls.
    • His palace walls were decorated with alabaster sculptures in low relief.
    • Assurnasirpal II’s sculptures depict narratives in a dynamic style.

    Assurbanipal

    • Assurbanipal, who reigned from 687-627 BCE, established his capital in Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik, Iraq).
    • Assurbanipal is known for his library at Nineveh, containing clay tablets with cuneiform script.

    Persia

    • The Achaemenid Empire was founded by Darius I, who ruled from 521-486 BCE.
    • Darius I initiated the construction of Persepolis (the capital of Persia) around 515 BCE.
    • Darius I built the ceremonial complex at Persepolis, which included the Apadana (Audience Hall), a grand structure featuring elaborate stairways adorned with relief sculpture.
    • Relief sculptures depict a variety of scenes, including Darius I receiving tribute from conquered nations. This underscores the power and wealth of the Persian Empire.

    Ashoka's Pillars

    • Ashoka, emperor of the Mauryan dynasty, was one of the first rulers to convert to Buddhism after witnessing the violence of conquering Kalinga.
    • To spread Buddhism, Ashoka erected numerous pillars throughout his empire, reaching areas of modern-day Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.
    • The pillars, typically standing between 40 and 50 feet tall, were carved from stone and weighed approximately 50 tons each.
    • Only 19 pillars remain, many in fragments, with the first discovered in the 16th century.
    • The pillars were topped with sculptures of animals, most commonly lions, which symbolize royalty and the Shakya clan into which the Buddha was born.
    • The pillars were often topped by an inverted lotus flower, representing Buddhist ideals.
    • Ashoka's pillars held edicts, inscriptions written in a variety of scripts, including Brahmi, Aramaic, and Greek, acknowledging his desire to reach diverse cultures.
    • The edicts discussed various themes, including social welfare, tolerance, the importance of dharma, and apologies for past violence.
    • The Ashokan pillars were a significant artistic project during the Hinayana period of Buddhism, which emphasized the teachings of Buddha over physical representations.
    • The pillars represent one of the earliest physical manifestations of Buddhist faith, serving as a form of communication and reinforcing Ashoka's authority.

    The Significance of Ashoka's Pillars

    • The pillars were intentionally placed along trade routes, in border cities, and at pilgrimage sites, ensuring widespread visibility.
    • The pillars served as an early form of public communication, aiming to educate people about Buddhist principles and Ashoka's administrative reforms.
    • Ashoka's edicts illustrate his vision for an ethically governed society and his commitment to religious tolerance.

    The Hinayana Period

    • Dating from the 6th to 1st century B.C.E., it marked an early stage of Buddhism where no images of the Buddha were made.
    • Instead, symbols such as the lotus flower, lion, and wheel became popular representations of Buddhist concepts.
    • These symbols signified the key aspects of the religion, including Enlightenment, the endless cycle of birth and rebirth, and the Four Noble Truths.

    Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath

    • The Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath was erected at the site of Buddha’s first sermon.
    • The pillar is symbolic of the axis mundi.
    • The capital is made of three parts: a lotus flower base, a drum with four animals representing the cardinal directions, and four lions, representing the Buddha, royalty and leadership.
    • The capital was adopted as the national emblem of India and depicted on the one rupee note and the two rupee coin.
    • The four animals on the drum represent the four directions and also the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta.
    • They represent the four perils of samsara - the unending cycle of existence.
    • The lion represents the Buddha, formerly Shakyamuni, a member of the Shakya (lion) clan.
    • Four lions stand atop the drum, facing the four cardinal directions, representing the Buddha spreading the dharma (Four Noble Truths).
    • A cakra (wheel) was originally mounted above the lions.
    • The pillar reads from bottom to top.
    • The lotus represents the murky water of the mundane world.
    • The four animals represent the unending cycle of samsara.
    • The cakra at the top represents moksa - release from samsara.
    • The cakra, the wheel between the four animals, represents the Eightfold Path.
    • The symbolism of the pillar moving up to the apex, the cakra, parallels the way in which practitioners meditate on the stupa (a dome-shaped structure) to attain Enlightenment.

    The Cakra

    • The number of spokes in the cakra was not standardized.
    • The cakra with eight spokes, representing the Eightfold Path, is often used in Buddhism.
    • The cakra symbolizes moksa, the release from the cycle of rebirth (samsara), and the attainment of enlightenment.

    Stupas

    • "Stupa" is Sanskrit for "heap" and represents an important Buddhist architecture form but predates Buddhism
    • Stupas are largely considered to be sepulchral monuments, serving as burial sites or repositories for religious objects.
    • The most basic form is a burial mound made of dirt and faced with stone.

    Early Stupas

    • Before the advent of Buddhism, great teachers were buried in mounds.
    • Some were cremated, while others were buried in a meditative seated position.
    • The domed shape of the stupa represents a meditating individual, symbolizing the Buddha’s posture when he attained Enlightenment and the Four Noble Truths.
    • The base of the stupa represents the Buddha's crossed legs in the lotus position.
    • The middle section represents his body, and the apex with a pole and fence symbolizes his head.
    • Early stupas contained relics of the Buddha, particularly his ashes.
    • The addition of these relics infused them with the Buddha's energy.
    • These early stupas were typically built at sites significant to the Buddha's life, such as Lumbini (birthplace), Bodh Gaya (Enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon), and Kushingara (death).
    • The choice of these sites was based on both historical and legendary events.

    Ashoka and the Spread of Stupas

    • King Ashoka, a prominent Buddhist proponent, is associated with the creation of 84,000 stupas.
    • This number is likely an exaggeration, but Ashoka undoubtedly built numerous stupas across northern India and territories under the Mauryan Dynasty.
    • He aspired to provide new Buddhists with tools to aid in their faith.
    • This aligns with the Buddha’s pre-death instructions to erect stupas in locations beyond those connected to his life, aiming to bring "calm and glad" hearts.
    • Ashoka also constructed stupas in areas less accessible to those containing the Buddha's ashes.

    The Great Stupa at Sanchi

    • It is a renowned stupa located in Madya Pradesh, India.
    • The location of the stupa was chosen because Ashoka’s wife, Devi, was born in that area.
    • It was sited on an essential trading route, ensuring its accessibility.

    Karmic Benefits

    • The practice of building stupas spread with Buddhism to regions like Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Thailand, Burma, China, and the United States.
    • Their form has evolved over time, but their core function remains unchanged.
    • Stupas serve as a reminder of the Buddha and his teachings.
    • Building stupas also offers karmic benefits.
    • In Hinduism and Buddhism, karma is the energy generated by actions and their ethical consequences.
    • It influences a person's next life or rebirth.
    • The Avadāna Sutra outlines ten merits of building a stupa, including the prevention of rebirth in remote locations and extreme poverty.
    • Stupas are prevalent in the countryside of Tibet ("chorten") and Burma ("chedi").

    The Journey to Enlightenment

    • Buddhists visit stupas to perform rituals that facilitate the achievement of Enlightenment, a key goal in Buddhism.
    • This involves comprehending the Buddha's teachings, known as the Four Noble Truths (dharma or the law).
    • Understanding the Four Noble Truths helps to break free from samsara, the endless cycle of birth and death.
    • The Four Noble Truths are:
      • Life is suffering (suffering = rebirth).
      • The cause of suffering is desire.
      • Desire must be overcome.
      • When desire is overcome, there is no more suffering (suffering = rebirth).

    The Stupa as a Circle or Wheel

    • The Maha-parinibbāna sutra suggests that the Buddha's ashes should be buried in a stupa at the intersection of the four great roads (directions), representing the unmoving hub of the wheel, the place of Enlightenment.
    • The stupa, viewed as a circle or wheel, signifies Enlightenment through its unmoving center.
    • It symbolizes stillness and peace attained through the complete understanding of the Buddhist dharma.
    • Many stupas are built on a square base with four sides representing the cardinal directions (north, south, east, west).
    • Each side typically features a gate in the center, allowing entry from any direction.
    • These gates are called torana.
    • Each gate represents the four significant events of the Buddha's life:
      • East: Birth
      • South: Enlightenment
      • West: First sermon
      • North: Nirvana

    The Yasti and the Axis Mundi

    • The stupa's yasti, or spire, symbolizes the axis mundi, the central axis of the universe.
    • It is surrounded by a harmika (fence or gate) and topped by chattras (umbrella-like objects representing royalty and protection).
    • The yasti marks a point of connection between the human body and the universe.
    • The spinal column is the human axis, similar to the axis of Mount Meru, the sacred mountain at the center of the Buddhist world.
    • This connection highlights the practitioner's journey toward Enlightenment, a climb through various planes of increasing knowledge.

    Circumambulation

    • Practitioners do not enter the stupa, as it is a solid structure, but walk around it as a meditative practice focusing on the Buddha's teachings.
    • This circumambulation symbolizes the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara) and the spokes of the Eightfold Path, which leads to Enlightenment.
    • The practitioner’s movement from the periphery to the center of the stupa, marked by the yasti, represents the path to Enlightenment.
    • Circumambulation is also a practice in other faiths, such as the circling of the Kaaba in Mecca by Muslims.
    • This practice can be performed by walking or through prostrations, which mimic the fire’s heat that cremated the Buddha’s body.
    • The heat symbolizes the burning away of attachment to the mundane world, which are obstacles to Enlightenment.
    • The purpose of circumambulation is not veneration of the relics themselves, but a reminder of the Four Noble Truths.

    Votive Offerings

    • Smaller stupas can serve as votive offerings, objects used in acts of devotion.
    • They can be sponsored to gain merit and improve karma.
    • These stupas often bear inscriptions expressing the desire for all beings to attain Enlightenment.
    • They are used in home altars and monastic shrines.
    • Their small size allows for easy transportation, contributing to the spread of Buddhist doctrine.
    • They are usually crafted from stone or cast in bronze.
    • Bronze stupas can also serve as reliquaries, containing the ashes of respected teachers.
    • The form of the stupa often reflects the Buddha’s form, symbolizing Enlightenment and the Four Noble Truths.

    Midterm Exam

    • Midterm Exam 1 (17%) is in class on October 7
    • Bring a pencil (pen will not work) and eraser

    Research Assignment

    • Research assignment is due on October 7 after the Midterm Exam

    In-Class Activity Grading

    • A ✔ means the in-class activity is satisfactory
    • A ✔- - means the in-class activity is below satisfactory

    Ancient Greek Art

    • Ancient Greek art is dated 800 BCE – 31 BCE

    Humanism

    • Man is the measure of all things
    • Interest in the human form (body)

    Rationalism

    • Humans must use logic and reason
    • Humans must exercise critical thinking

    Idealism

    • Belief in the beauty of perfection
    • Nature creates imperfect forms, which humans can re-create as perfect forms (in art)

    The Human Body in Greek Sculpture

    • The male nude
    • Anavysos Kouros, c. 530 BCE is an example of Archaic period sculpture

    Archaic Period (600–480 BCE)

    • Sculpture was a type rather than a portrait
    • Greek sculptures were inspired by Egyptian sculpture

    (High) Classical Period (450–400 BCE)

    • Polykleitos, Spear Bearer (Doryphoros), c. 450-440 BCE is an example of High Classical Period sculpture
    • Polykleitos wrote the Canon of Polykleitos which explains how to create a mathematically perfect representation of the body

    Canon of Polykleitos

    • A system of ratios for creating a perfect representation of the body

    Contrapposto

    • A pose in which the body is balanced, with one leg relaxed and the other supporting the weight, creating a more natural and dynamic look

    Naturalism (or naturalistic)

    • A representational style that closely imitates the appearance of something in the natural world

    Idealization (idealized)

    • A representational style that transforms the appearance of something in the natural world (like the human body) to make it conform to ideals (like cultural standards)

    Polykleitos’ Spear Bearer (Doryphoros)

    • A naturalistic and idealized representation

    Hellenistic Period (323-31 BCE)

    • Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athanodoros of Rhodes, Laocoön and his Sons is an example of Hellenistic Period sculpture
    • More emotional and expressive style compared to the Classical Period

    The Human Body in Greek Sculpture

    • The female nude

    Classical Greek Architecture and Sculptural Relief

    • Vancouver Central Station (1919) and Vancouver Art Gallery (1906-1912) use Classical Greek architecture elements

    The Parthenon

    • The Parthenon is a Greek temple dedicated to the goddess Athena
    • Located on the Acropolis in Athens
    • Built by Kallikrates and Iktinos, c. 447–432 BCE
    • Made of marble and is 69.5 x 30.9 m

    The Acropolis

    • Is the raised part of Athens

    Greek Orders

    • A regulated decorative system used for Ancient Greek temples

    Post and Lintel

    • A construction system that uses horizontal beams (lintels) supported by vertical columns (posts)

    Midterm Exam

    • Midterm Exam 1 (17%) is in class on October 7th.
    • Bring a pencil (pen does not work for the scanning machine) and an eraser to the exam.

    Office Hours

    • Not specified in the text.

    Research Assignment Guidelines

    • Research Assignment sign-up is in class on October 7th after the midterm exam.

    Review: Art of Ancient Greece

    • Not specified in the text.

    Roman Art

    • Roman Art period: 509 BCE – 337 CE.

    Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors (Barberini Togatus)

    • End of 1st century BCE or beginning of the 1st century CE.
    • Made of marble.
    • Height: 1.65 m.
    • Shows a tradition of death masks.

    Augustus (31 BCE – 14 CE)

    • First emperor of the Roman Empire.
    • Gained the title of Augustus (exalted one) in 27 BCE.
    • Assumed complete power and initiated dynastic control over the empire.
    • Defeated Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.
    • Established peace throughout the Roman territories (known as the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace).

    Augustus of Primaporta

    • Early 1st century CE (perhaps a copy of a bronze statue of c. 20 BCE).
    • Made of marble, originally painted.
    • Height: 2.03 m.

    Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar

    • 44 BCE.
    • Made of silver.
    • Diameter: approximately 1.9 cm.

    Augustus as First Emperor of the Roman Empire

    • Augustus of Primaporta was a bronze sculpture commissioned to celebrate the Roman Emperor Augustus’ victory over the Parthians.

    Comparison with Classical Greek Sculpture

    • Augustus of Primaporta is Roman, made around 20 BCE.
    • Polykleitos, Spear Bearer (Doryphoros) is Greek, created around 450-440 BCE.

    Most Ancient Roman Sculpture

    • Was originally painted.

    Architecture in the Roman Empire

    • Located in the capital city of Rome.

    Ara Pacis (Altar of Augustan Peace)

    • Located on the Campus Martius (training ground) in the city of Rome.
    • Completed 13-9 BCE.
    • Made of marble.
    • Dimensions: approx. 10.5 x 11.6 m.
    • Commemorates Emperor Augustus’ achievement of peace in the Roman Empire after his military victories.

    Imperial Procession Relief on the Ara Pacis

    • 13-9 BCE.
    • Made of marble.
    • Height: 1.6 m.

    Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions

    • c. 875-860 BCE.
    • Made of alabaster.
    • From the palace complex of Assurnasirpal II.

    Colosseum, Rome

    • 72-80 CE.
    • Made of concrete and marble.
    • Height: 48 m.
    • Construction begun by Emperor Vespasian, and completed by his son, Emperor Titus.

    Colosseum Construction

    • Construction began during the reign of Emperor Vespasian (69-79 CE) and was completed by his son, Emperor Titus (79-81 CE).

    The Round Arch

    • Used in the construction of the Colosseum.

    Compare and Contrast

    • Parthenon (Greek): post and lintel construction.
    • Colosseum (Roman): round arch construction.

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    Related Documents

    Prehistoric Art Lecture Notes PDF
    Lecture 3 Art of the Ancient Near East (5) PDF
    Lecture 6 - Art of Ancient Greece and the Aegean World (4) PDF
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