Introduction to Art History

Art History

• Art history is the study of art objects' form, content, and context.

Form

• Form refers to the physical and visual characteristics of an art object.
• Physical characteristics include medium, material, and dimensions.
• Visual characteristics include line, shape, form, color, texture, space, and composition.

Content

• Content is the communication of the art object.
• Content refers to the subject matter (a woman, a tree, a specific story) and the theme (love, power, death).

Context

• Context refers to the historical circumstances- time and place -- of the production and reception of the art object.
• To understand the context, we ask questions such as:
  • Where and when was the art object made?
  • What are the relevant political, social, religious, and intellectual cultures at the time?
  • What is known about the artist and the patron?
  • Why did the patron commission the art object?
  • Where was the art object originally displayed?
  • Who were the original intended viewers?

Prehistory

• Prehistory refers to the period before writing systems.
• It is the period before the existence of written documents.

Stone Age

• The Stone Age refers to the Prehistoric period.

Paleolithic Era

• Paleolithic refers to Old Stone Age (c. 42,000 BCE - 8,000 BCE).
• Paleolithic art mainly focuses on sculpture.

Neolithic Era

• Neolithic refers to New Stone Age (c. 6,500 BCE - 2,300 BCE).

Cave Paintings: Subjects

• Animals were the main subject of Paleolithic cave paintings.
• Some common subjects include:
  • Rhinoceros
  • Wooly mammoth
  • Lion
  • Bison
  • Bull
  • Deer
  • Horse

Chauvet Cave

• Chauvet Cave (c. 32,000- 30,000 BCE)
• Cave paintings were located deep within the caves.
• The cave paintings are on limestone and use black pigment.

Creating Cave Art

• Ground up ocher was mixed with water.
• Large flat stones served as containers for the mixture.
• Paint was applied with brushes made from reeds, bristles, or twigs.
• It could also be sprayed from a blowpipe made from a reed or hollow bone.
• A wooden scaffold was used to create high walls.

Color and Line

• Cave art uses color and line.
• Examples include the Lion Panel and paintings with mammoths and horses.

Illusion of Movement

• The cave paintings, especially the Lion Panel, create an illusion of movement using color and line.

Sumer

• Sumerian cities were ruled by priest-kings who claimed to rule in the name of the gods.
• City-states considered the ziggurat to be the spiritual center.
• The ziggurat served as a meeting place between the people and their gods.
• Sumer had a polytheistic society.
• Nanna, the moon goddess, was worshipped in the Nanna Ziggurat at Ur.

Writing

• Sumerians invented writing, which evolved between 3200-3100 BCE.
• Originally, they used pictographs that represented a single word or phrase.
• Around 2600 BCE, cuneiform writing was developed, utilizing a stylus to create wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets.
• Clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform were stored inside the temples on top of ziggurats.

Votive Worshippers

• Votive worshippers were sculptures created between 2900–2600 BCE.
• Constructed from limestone, alabaster, and gypsum, they are believed to have been offerings to the gods.
• The Votive Worshippers sculpture exemplifies the “hieratic scale” principle which denotes the importance of a figure through its size.
• The sculpture also illustrates the concept of “artistic convention” by depicting the figures in a stylized and formal manner.

Assyria

• The Assyrians rose to prominence in Northern Mesopotamia around 1400 BCE.
• Assurnasirpal II, who ruled from 883-859 BCE, established his capital city at Kalhu (modern Nimrud, Iraq).
• He constructed a fortified city, incorporating mud-brick walls.
• His palace walls were decorated with alabaster sculptures in low relief.
• Assurnasirpal II’s sculptures depict narratives in a dynamic style.

Assurbanipal

• Assurbanipal, who reigned from 687-627 BCE, established his capital in Nineveh (modern Kuyunjik, Iraq).
• Assurbanipal is known for his library at Nineveh, containing clay tablets with cuneiform script.

Persia

• The Achaemenid Empire was founded by Darius I, who ruled from 521-486 BCE.
• Darius I initiated the construction of Persepolis (the capital of Persia) around 515 BCE.
• Darius I built the ceremonial complex at Persepolis, which included the Apadana (Audience Hall), a grand structure featuring elaborate stairways adorned with relief sculpture.
• Relief sculptures depict a variety of scenes, including Darius I receiving tribute from conquered nations. This underscores the power and wealth of the Persian Empire.

Ashoka's Pillars

• Ashoka, emperor of the Mauryan dynasty, was one of the first rulers to convert to Buddhism after witnessing the violence of conquering Kalinga.
• To spread Buddhism, Ashoka erected numerous pillars throughout his empire, reaching areas of modern-day Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.
• The pillars, typically standing between 40 and 50 feet tall, were carved from stone and weighed approximately 50 tons each.
• Only 19 pillars remain, many in fragments, with the first discovered in the 16th century.
• The pillars were topped with sculptures of animals, most commonly lions, which symbolize royalty and the Shakya clan into which the Buddha was born.
• The pillars were often topped by an inverted lotus flower, representing Buddhist ideals.
• Ashoka's pillars held edicts, inscriptions written in a variety of scripts, including Brahmi, Aramaic, and Greek, acknowledging his desire to reach diverse cultures.
• The edicts discussed various themes, including social welfare, tolerance, the importance of dharma, and apologies for past violence.
• The Ashokan pillars were a significant artistic project during the Hinayana period of Buddhism, which emphasized the teachings of Buddha over physical representations.
• The pillars represent one of the earliest physical manifestations of Buddhist faith, serving as a form of communication and reinforcing Ashoka's authority.

The Significance of Ashoka's Pillars

• The pillars were intentionally placed along trade routes, in border cities, and at pilgrimage sites, ensuring widespread visibility.
• The pillars served as an early form of public communication, aiming to educate people about Buddhist principles and Ashoka's administrative reforms.
• Ashoka's edicts illustrate his vision for an ethically governed society and his commitment to religious tolerance.

The Hinayana Period

• Dating from the 6th to 1st century B.C.E., it marked an early stage of Buddhism where no images of the Buddha were made.
• Instead, symbols such as the lotus flower, lion, and wheel became popular representations of Buddhist concepts.
• These symbols signified the key aspects of the religion, including Enlightenment, the endless cycle of birth and rebirth, and the Four Noble Truths.

Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath

• The Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath was erected at the site of Buddha’s first sermon.
• The pillar is symbolic of the axis mundi.
• The capital is made of three parts: a lotus flower base, a drum with four animals representing the cardinal directions, and four lions, representing the Buddha, royalty and leadership.
• The capital was adopted as the national emblem of India and depicted on the one rupee note and the two rupee coin.
• The four animals on the drum represent the four directions and also the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta.
• They represent the four perils of samsara - the unending cycle of existence.
• The lion represents the Buddha, formerly Shakyamuni, a member of the Shakya (lion) clan.
• Four lions stand atop the drum, facing the four cardinal directions, representing the Buddha spreading the dharma (Four Noble Truths).
• A cakra (wheel) was originally mounted above the lions.
• The pillar reads from bottom to top.
• The lotus represents the murky water of the mundane world.
• The four animals represent the unending cycle of samsara.
• The cakra at the top represents moksa - release from samsara.
• The cakra, the wheel between the four animals, represents the Eightfold Path.
• The symbolism of the pillar moving up to the apex, the cakra, parallels the way in which practitioners meditate on the stupa (a dome-shaped structure) to attain Enlightenment.

The Cakra

• The number of spokes in the cakra was not standardized.
• The cakra with eight spokes, representing the Eightfold Path, is often used in Buddhism.
• The cakra symbolizes moksa, the release from the cycle of rebirth (samsara), and the attainment of enlightenment.

Stupas

• "Stupa" is Sanskrit for "heap" and represents an important Buddhist architecture form but predates Buddhism
• Stupas are largely considered to be sepulchral monuments, serving as burial sites or repositories for religious objects.
• The most basic form is a burial mound made of dirt and faced with stone.

Early Stupas

• Before the advent of Buddhism, great teachers were buried in mounds.
• Some were cremated, while others were buried in a meditative seated position.
• The domed shape of the stupa represents a meditating individual, symbolizing the Buddha’s posture when he attained Enlightenment and the Four Noble Truths.
• The base of the stupa represents the Buddha's crossed legs in the lotus position.
• The middle section represents his body, and the apex with a pole and fence symbolizes his head.
• Early stupas contained relics of the Buddha, particularly his ashes.
• The addition of these relics infused them with the Buddha's energy.
• These early stupas were typically built at sites significant to the Buddha's life, such as Lumbini (birthplace), Bodh Gaya (Enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon), and Kushingara (death).
• The choice of these sites was based on both historical and legendary events.

Ashoka and the Spread of Stupas

• King Ashoka, a prominent Buddhist proponent, is associated with the creation of 84,000 stupas.
• This number is likely an exaggeration, but Ashoka undoubtedly built numerous stupas across northern India and territories under the Mauryan Dynasty.
• He aspired to provide new Buddhists with tools to aid in their faith.
• This aligns with the Buddha’s pre-death instructions to erect stupas in locations beyond those connected to his life, aiming to bring "calm and glad" hearts.
• Ashoka also constructed stupas in areas less accessible to those containing the Buddha's ashes.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi

• It is a renowned stupa located in Madya Pradesh, India.
• The location of the stupa was chosen because Ashoka’s wife, Devi, was born in that area.
• It was sited on an essential trading route, ensuring its accessibility.

Karmic Benefits

• The practice of building stupas spread with Buddhism to regions like Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Thailand, Burma, China, and the United States.
• Their form has evolved over time, but their core function remains unchanged.
• Stupas serve as a reminder of the Buddha and his teachings.
• Building stupas also offers karmic benefits.
• In Hinduism and Buddhism, karma is the energy generated by actions and their ethical consequences.
• It influences a person's next life or rebirth.
• The Avadāna Sutra outlines ten merits of building a stupa, including the prevention of rebirth in remote locations and extreme poverty.
• Stupas are prevalent in the countryside of Tibet ("chorten") and Burma ("chedi").

The Journey to Enlightenment

• Buddhists visit stupas to perform rituals that facilitate the achievement of Enlightenment, a key goal in Buddhism.
• This involves comprehending the Buddha's teachings, known as the Four Noble Truths (dharma or the law).
• Understanding the Four Noble Truths helps to break free from samsara, the endless cycle of birth and death.
• The Four Noble Truths are:
  • Life is suffering (suffering = rebirth).
  • The cause of suffering is desire.
  • Desire must be overcome.
  • When desire is overcome, there is no more suffering (suffering = rebirth).

The Stupa as a Circle or Wheel

• The Maha-parinibbāna sutra suggests that the Buddha's ashes should be buried in a stupa at the intersection of the four great roads (directions), representing the unmoving hub of the wheel, the place of Enlightenment.
• The stupa, viewed as a circle or wheel, signifies Enlightenment through its unmoving center.
• It symbolizes stillness and peace attained through the complete understanding of the Buddhist dharma.
• Many stupas are built on a square base with four sides representing the cardinal directions (north, south, east, west).
• Each side typically features a gate in the center, allowing entry from any direction.
• These gates are called torana.
• Each gate represents the four significant events of the Buddha's life:
  • East: Birth
  • South: Enlightenment
  • West: First sermon
  • North: Nirvana

The Yasti and the Axis Mundi

• The stupa's yasti, or spire, symbolizes the axis mundi, the central axis of the universe.
• It is surrounded by a harmika (fence or gate) and topped by chattras (umbrella-like objects representing royalty and protection).
• The yasti marks a point of connection between the human body and the universe.
• The spinal column is the human axis, similar to the axis of Mount Meru, the sacred mountain at the center of the Buddhist world.
• This connection highlights the practitioner's journey toward Enlightenment, a climb through various planes of increasing knowledge.

Circumambulation

• Practitioners do not enter the stupa, as it is a solid structure, but walk around it as a meditative practice focusing on the Buddha's teachings.
• This circumambulation symbolizes the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara) and the spokes of the Eightfold Path, which leads to Enlightenment.
• The practitioner’s movement from the periphery to the center of the stupa, marked by the yasti, represents the path to Enlightenment.
• Circumambulation is also a practice in other faiths, such as the circling of the Kaaba in Mecca by Muslims.
• This practice can be performed by walking or through prostrations, which mimic the fire’s heat that cremated the Buddha’s body.
• The heat symbolizes the burning away of attachment to the mundane world, which are obstacles to Enlightenment.
• The purpose of circumambulation is not veneration of the relics themselves, but a reminder of the Four Noble Truths.

Votive Offerings

• Smaller stupas can serve as votive offerings, objects used in acts of devotion.
• They can be sponsored to gain merit and improve karma.
• These stupas often bear inscriptions expressing the desire for all beings to attain Enlightenment.
• They are used in home altars and monastic shrines.
• Their small size allows for easy transportation, contributing to the spread of Buddhist doctrine.
• They are usually crafted from stone or cast in bronze.
• Bronze stupas can also serve as reliquaries, containing the ashes of respected teachers.
• The form of the stupa often reflects the Buddha’s form, symbolizing Enlightenment and the Four Noble Truths.

Midterm Exam

• Midterm Exam 1 (17%) is in class on October 7
• Bring a pencil (pen will not work) and eraser

Research Assignment

• Research assignment is due on October 7 after the Midterm Exam

In-Class Activity Grading

• A ✔ means the in-class activity is satisfactory
• A ✔- - means the in-class activity is below satisfactory

Ancient Greek Art

• Ancient Greek art is dated 800 BCE – 31 BCE

Humanism

• Man is the measure of all things
• Interest in the human form (body)

Rationalism

• Humans must use logic and reason
• Humans must exercise critical thinking

Idealism

• Belief in the beauty of perfection
• Nature creates imperfect forms, which humans can re-create as perfect forms (in art)

The Human Body in Greek Sculpture

• The male nude
• Anavysos Kouros, c. 530 BCE is an example of Archaic period sculpture

Archaic Period (600–480 BCE)

• Sculpture was a type rather than a portrait
• Greek sculptures were inspired by Egyptian sculpture

(High) Classical Period (450–400 BCE)

• Polykleitos, Spear Bearer (Doryphoros), c. 450-440 BCE is an example of High Classical Period sculpture
• Polykleitos wrote the Canon of Polykleitos which explains how to create a mathematically perfect representation of the body

Canon of Polykleitos

• A system of ratios for creating a perfect representation of the body

Contrapposto

• A pose in which the body is balanced, with one leg relaxed and the other supporting the weight, creating a more natural and dynamic look

Naturalism (or naturalistic)

• A representational style that closely imitates the appearance of something in the natural world

Idealization (idealized)

• A representational style that transforms the appearance of something in the natural world (like the human body) to make it conform to ideals (like cultural standards)

Polykleitos’ Spear Bearer (Doryphoros)

• A naturalistic and idealized representation

Hellenistic Period (323-31 BCE)

• Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athanodoros of Rhodes, Laocoön and his Sons is an example of Hellenistic Period sculpture
• More emotional and expressive style compared to the Classical Period

The Human Body in Greek Sculpture

• The female nude

Classical Greek Architecture and Sculptural Relief

• Vancouver Central Station (1919) and Vancouver Art Gallery (1906-1912) use Classical Greek architecture elements

The Parthenon

• The Parthenon is a Greek temple dedicated to the goddess Athena
• Located on the Acropolis in Athens
• Built by Kallikrates and Iktinos, c. 447–432 BCE
• Made of marble and is 69.5 x 30.9 m

The Acropolis

• Is the raised part of Athens

Greek Orders

• A regulated decorative system used for Ancient Greek temples

Post and Lintel

• A construction system that uses horizontal beams (lintels) supported by vertical columns (posts)

Midterm Exam

• Midterm Exam 1 (17%) is in class on October 7th.
• Bring a pencil (pen does not work for the scanning machine) and an eraser to the exam.

Office Hours

• Not specified in the text.

Research Assignment Guidelines

• Research Assignment sign-up is in class on October 7th after the midterm exam.

Review: Art of Ancient Greece

• Not specified in the text.

Roman Art

• Roman Art period: 509 BCE – 337 CE.

Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors (Barberini Togatus)

• End of 1st century BCE or beginning of the 1st century CE.
• Made of marble.
• Height: 1.65 m.
• Shows a tradition of death masks.

Augustus (31 BCE – 14 CE)

• First emperor of the Roman Empire.
• Gained the title of Augustus (exalted one) in 27 BCE.
• Assumed complete power and initiated dynastic control over the empire.
• Defeated Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.
• Established peace throughout the Roman territories (known as the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace).

Augustus of Primaporta

• Early 1st century CE (perhaps a copy of a bronze statue of c. 20 BCE).
• Made of marble, originally painted.
• Height: 2.03 m.

Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar

• 44 BCE.
• Made of silver.
• Diameter: approximately 1.9 cm.

Augustus as First Emperor of the Roman Empire

• Augustus of Primaporta was a bronze sculpture commissioned to celebrate the Roman Emperor Augustus’ victory over the Parthians.

Comparison with Classical Greek Sculpture

• Augustus of Primaporta is Roman, made around 20 BCE.
• Polykleitos, Spear Bearer (Doryphoros) is Greek, created around 450-440 BCE.

Most Ancient Roman Sculpture

• Was originally painted.

Architecture in the Roman Empire

• Located in the capital city of Rome.

Ara Pacis (Altar of Augustan Peace)

• Located on the Campus Martius (training ground) in the city of Rome.
• Completed 13-9 BCE.
• Made of marble.
• Dimensions: approx. 10.5 x 11.6 m.
• Commemorates Emperor Augustus’ achievement of peace in the Roman Empire after his military victories.

Imperial Procession Relief on the Ara Pacis

• 13-9 BCE.
• Made of marble.
• Height: 1.6 m.

Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions

• c. 875-860 BCE.
• Made of alabaster.
• From the palace complex of Assurnasirpal II.

Colosseum, Rome

• 72-80 CE.
• Made of concrete and marble.
• Height: 48 m.
• Construction begun by Emperor Vespasian, and completed by his son, Emperor Titus.

Colosseum Construction

• Construction began during the reign of Emperor Vespasian (69-79 CE) and was completed by his son, Emperor Titus (79-81 CE).

The Round Arch

• Used in the construction of the Colosseum.

Compare and Contrast

• Parthenon (Greek): post and lintel construction.
• Colosseum (Roman): round arch construction.