Introduction to Anthropology

• Cultural anthropology explores human diversity across time and space.
• It studies the human condition as a whole, covering the past, present, and future, and biology, society, language, and culture.
• It systematically compares data from different populations and time periods.
• The four subfields are cultural, archaeological, biological, and linguistic anthropology.
• Culture shapes human biology through traditions and customs passed down through learning, guiding beliefs and behavior.

Subdisciplines of Anthropology

• Cultural anthropology studies cultural diversity in the present and recent past.
• Archeology reconstructs past behavior by studying material remains.
• Biological anthropology examines human fossils, genetics, and bodily development, also studying non-human primates.
• Linguistic anthropology studies variations in speech related to social factors and time.
• Anthropology has academic (theoretical) and applied (practical) dimensions, with the latter using anthropological knowledge to address social issues.
• Anthropology connects with natural sciences like biology and social sciences like sociology.

Human Adaptability

• Anthropologists investigate humans in various locations and time periods, focusing on the diversity resulting from adaptability.
• Humans are the most adaptable species, as seen in high-altitude miners, desert tribes, and space exploration.
• Anthropological studies span human species and immediate ancestors, uniquely comparing all societies, past and present.
• Most people think anthropologists study fossils and non-industrial cultures, but it analyzes all societies.
• Different from other social sciences that typically focus on single industrial nations, anthropology offers unique cross-cultural perspective by comparing different societies' customs.
• People share society with other animals, but Culture, traditions and customs transmitted through learning, is uniquely human phenomenon.
• Enculturation is process through children learn traditions in particular society.

Cultural Traditions

• Cultural traditions, developed over generations, determine what behavior is acceptable and provide a sense of meaning and consistency to people's lives within a given society.
• Cultures not biological, rather they are transmitted through learning, relying on human biological capabilities.
• Hominids have had biological capabilities like learning, symbolic thought, language, and tool use for over a million years.
• Anthropology addresses major questions of human existence by exploring human biological & cultural diversity across time and space.
• Anthropologists solve mysteries of human origins by examining bones and tools, exploring human speciation & evolution.
• Humans continue to adapt and change culturally and biologically.

Adaptation, Variation, and Change

• Adaptation relates to process by which organisms cope with environmental forces/stresses.
• Humans adapt biologically and culturally.
• Cultural adaptation is also known as technological adaptation
• Several means used to combat low oxygen pressure at high altitudes- pressurized plane cabins with oxygen masks (cultural/technological).
• Natives acquire genetic advantages to assist for living at high elevations.
• The tendency to develop voluminous chests and lungs has probably an inherited (genetic) basis.
• People raised at high altitudes were able to adapt more efficiently than other people.
• Humans increase respiration and heart rate when subjected to environments with low oxygen contents.

Cultural Influences

• Cultural and biological adaptive responses are aimed toward one goal: sustaining appropriate supply oxygen in body.
• Throughout human history, social and cultural means for adaptation have gained prominence.
• Humans have devised diverse ways to respond to range & social systems they have inhabited across time & space.
• Pace cultural change sped during last 10,000 years.
• Big innovations have expanded earlier ones.
• Current global economy & communications unite all modern people, indirectly or directly, in modern worldwide system.
• From within local setting, people face forces produced increasingly broad systems (region, nation, and world).

General Anthropology

• General/four-field anthropology, includes four main subdisciplines: sociocultural, archaeological, biological, and linguistic anthropology.
• American anthropology arose a century ago from interest in history/cultures of Native Americans or other "indians."
• Interest the origins & diversity led to studies on customs, social life, language, & physical traits, causing subgroups.
• Anthropologists still assess questions like: Where did Native Americans come from? How many migration waves brought them to New World? What are links between linguistic/cultural & biological?
• There are logical reasons for the unity of North American anthropology.

Sub-Disciplines within Anthropology

• Each subdiscipline considers variations over time and space.
• Cultural anthropologists study changes in social life and customs.
• Archaeologists use the social lives and behavior of living societies to imagine how life might have played out.
• Biological anthropologists analyze evolutionary changes, like anatomical changes, that might be linked to language origin.
• Linguistic anthropologists attempt to reconstruct ancient languages by studying modern ones.
• The subdisciplines influence each other.
• General anthropology explores the basics of human biology, psychology, society, and culture.
• This also explores its interrelations.

Cultural & Biological Forces

• Anthropological perspective acknowledges that cultural forces constantly mold human biology.
• Biocultural signifies perspectives when analyzing issue. Culture shapes human development.
• Cultures physical activity contribute to building body.
• Societal beauty standards/cultural traits influence participation/success in athletics.
• Brazilian standards accept extra body fat.
• Brazilian culture has a concept that women should look softer while being a bit smaller overall.
• These differing results were neither the result of race, or cultural differences, but differences in genetics/body building/ cultural attitudes.

Cultural Anthropology

• Cultural anthropology entails studying society & culture, detailing, analyzing, describing/interpreting cultural differences along with similarities.
• Ethnography (fieldwork-based) along with ethnology, which involved cross cultural comparison.
• Ethnography has become description for any specific society/culture etc.
• Ethnographed obtain data which is structured & interpreted for descriptions in print/visuals.
• Ethnography gives better perspective that differs science and economics.
• Anthropology has often been relatively poor, but is starting to change.