Introduction to Anthropology

• Social Science studies people, their behaviors, and interactions with each other, including technological and natural advancements.
• Social Science seeks to understand evolving human systems in an increasingly complex world.

Anthropology

• Anthropology is the study of what makes us human.
• Anthropology focuses on understanding both our shared humanity and diversity.
• Anthropology engages with diverse ways of being in this world.
• The subfields of anthropology are Archaeology (fossils & artifacts), Biological Anthropology (evolution of humans), Linguistics (language), and Social/Cultural Anthropology (traditions & customs).
• Edward Tylor's perspective is that culture is a complex whole, including knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, customs, and other capabilities and habits acquired by people.
• Franz Boas believed a stratification of society in social groups that are racial in character will always lead to racial discrimination.
• Franz Boas believed each culture is unique and must be studied in its own context.
• Bronislaw Malinowski introduced participant observation as a method of studying culture.
• Margaret Mead stated culture shapes human behavior, particularly in relation to gender roles.
• Margaret Mead believed gender roles could be redefined and reshaped through cultural change.
• The etymology of anthropology: "anthropos" (human) + "logos" (study) = study of humanity.

Sociology

• The etymology of sociology: "socius" (companionship) + "logos" (study) = study of companionship/society
• Auguste Comte is the father of sociology.
• Auguste Comte introduced a positivist approach in studying society.
• Auguste Comte believed society must be studied scientifically through evidence, experiments, and statistics.
• Harriet Martineau emphasized the need for sociologists to adopt an attitude of empathy and understanding toward those they were observing.
• Emile Durkheim viewed society as a living organism, in which organs (social institutions) play a role in keeping society alive.
• Emile Durkheim emphasized the elements of cohesion, shared values, and social equilibrium as bases of social order
• The 5 major social institutions: Family, Education, Religion, Economy, Government.
• Karl Marx stated society is shaped by the interest of powerful & dominant groups.
• Karl Marx emphasized the antagonisms of opposing classes in order to control the distribution of scarce resources.

Political Science

• The etymology of political science: "polis" (city/state) + "scire" (to know) = study of politics, power, government
• Political Science aims to know the activities within the state.
• Political Science studies human interactions and conflict, human and state relations, and power distribution.
• David Easton was concerned with how authoritative decisions are made and executed by a society.
• Demands are perceived needs by a population.
• Support refers to mechanisms within the system that would allow for such demands to be facilitated.
• Feedback refers to opinions & responses that would be made by affected sectors.
• The inputs of a political system are demands & support.
• The outputs of a political system are decisions & policies.

Culture

• Culture consists of socially transmitted ways of thinking, believing, feeling, and acting within a group of people.
• Society is a group of people who share a defined territory and culture.
• Culture is everything that a person learns as a member of society.
• Material culture consists of concrete and tangible objects created and used by humans.
• Examples of material culture: dwelling places, weapons, tools, clothing, artifacts.
• Nonmaterial culture includes all of the abstract and intangible parts of culture.
• Examples of nonmaterial culture: behavior, knowledge, customs, traditions, beliefs.
• Culture is learned; it is taught by someone to someone else.
• Culture is shared, it is an attribute not of individuals per se but of individuals as members of groups.
• Culture is symbolic, it originated when our ancestors acquired the ability to use symbols to originate and bestow meaning on a thing or event.
• Culture is adaptive and is a tool for survival that humans use in response to the pressures of the environment.
• Culture is influenced by the goal of humans to address their needs.
• Culture is dynamic; change happens all the time and nothing is permanent except change.
• Culture is contested; contesting of such issues is important to voice concerns and fight for what they believe is right.

Social Constructs

• Sex is biological differences between males and females.
• Sex determines physiological characteristics and can influence societal roles and expectations.
• Gender consists of socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes considered appropriate for men and women.
• Gender influences personal identity, social expectations, and interactions.
• Race is a social construct based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture.
• Race influences identity, social experiences, and access to resources.
• Ethnicity refers to shared cultural practices, traditions, and heritage, including language, religion, and customs.
• Ethnicity shapes cultural identity and community belonging, influencing social interactions and personal experiences.
• Class/status refers to social stratification based on economic resources, education, and occupation.
• Class/status affects individuals' access to opportunities, social mobility, and lifestyle.
• Age refers to the stage of life a person is in, from infancy to old age.
• Age affects social roles, expectations, and experiences.
• Cultural Variations refer to the differences in customs, beliefs, practices, and behaviors that exist between different cultures or within subgroups of the same culture.
• Cultural Variations are shaped by factors such as geography, history, religion, language, and social norms.
• Cultural variations manifest in many aspects of life including communication styles, traditions, values, and social practices.
• Significant reasons of cultural variations are environment, isolation, and technology.

Reasons For Cultural Variations

• The natural surroundings, including climate and resources, shape daily life, customs, and practices.
• Coastal cultures may develop fishing-based traditions, while desert cultures focus on water conservation.
• Isolation leads to the development of unique cultural practices by limiting interaction with other groups.
• Isolation helps in preserving cultural practices that might otherwise be influenced or diluted by outside contact.
• Remote tribes maintain traditional ways of life due to limited outside contact.