Introduction to Anatomy

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body.
• Subdivisions of anatomy includes Gross Anatomy, Microscopic Anatomy, Developmental Anatomy, and Specialized Branches of Anatomy.

Gross Anatomy

• Gross, or macroscopic, anatomy considers structures visible to the naked eye.
• Regional anatomy studies all structures within one part of the body such as the abdomen or leg.
• Systemic anatomy studies the gross anatomy of the body studied by system.
• Surface anatomy is the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin.

Microscopic Anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy looks at very small structures and includes:
• Cytology, which is the study of cells.
• Histology, which is the study of tissues.

Medical Terminology

• The image provided gives various examples such as terms for the frontal, nasal, oral, and cervical areas on the anterior view and cranial, vertebral, deltoid, and lumbar on the posterior view.

Anatomical Directions

• Superior means towards the head, also known as cranial.
• Inferior means towards the feet, also known as caudal.
• Anterior means in front, also know as ventral.
• Posterior means in back, also know or dorsal.
• Medial means closer to the midline or median plane.
• Lateral means away from the midline.
• Proximal refers to extremities and means closer to the root.
• Distal refers to extremities and means away from the root.
• Superficial means closer to the surface
• Deep means closer to the core of the body.
• Ventral Means towards the front or belly
• Dorsal Means towards the back
• Prone is lying face down
• Supine is lying face down
• Unilateral pertains to one side of the body
• Bilateral pertains to both sides of the body

Sectional Anatomy

• The following terms are used for planes or sections that cut the body organs, tissues, or cells.
• Transverse planes divide the body into superior and inferior sections.
• Frontal planes divide the body into anterior and posterior sections.
• Sagittal planes divide the body into left and right sections.
• Midsagittal sections divide the body into equal halves.

Cavities of the Human Body

• The Thoracic cavity is the body cavity that lies above the diaphragm, is bounded peripherally by the wall of the chest, and contains the heart and lungs.
• The heart is found between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest and functions to pump blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system, removing metabolic waste.
• The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute.
• The human heart has four chambers: the two upper atria which receive the blood and two lower ventricles which discharge the blood.
• The lungs weigh approximately 1.3 kilograms with the right lung being slightly heavier, and function to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas exchange.
• The cranial cavity (also known as the intracranial space), protected by the skull, contains the brain.
• Meninges, protective membranes, surround the brain to minimize damage from head trauma.
• There are only 8 cranial bones: the the occipital, two parietal, the frontal, two temporal , the ethmoid and the sphenoid bones fused together by the ossification of fixed fibrous structures.
• The adult human cranial cavity has a capacity of 1,200-1,700 cm³.
• The abdominopelvic cavity is a body cavity that consists of the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity.
• The abdominopelvic cavity includes the stomach, liver, pancreas, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, most of the small and large intestines, the urinary bladder, and internal reproductive organs.
• The pelvic cavity (or cavity of the true pelvis), can be defined as the area between pelvic inlet and pelvic outlet, and it is separated into main pelvic cavity above.
• The pelvic cavity can contain anterior and posterior contents.

Surface Anatomy

• When examining surface anatomy you use visual inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation.
• Areas to analyze are the head and neck, where you can inspect the skull, check face landmarks, and arteries.
• One important artery to note is the superficial temporal artery, found near the region of the ear, which can be used to asses a patient.
• There are various neck triangles including the submental, submandibular, carotid, muscular, occipital, and supraclavicular.
• Anterior chest anatomy covers the major muscles and surface features.
• Posterior/Back surface features have vertebra prominens and the vertebral spines.
• Surfaces of the abdomen have rectus abdominis muscle, external oblique muscle and the linea alba.
• When it comes to limbs, you can observe the medial view of arm, elbow or the anterior view of the leg , ankle and foot.
• The anterior aspect of cubital fossa have the biceps brachii muscle and the cephalic vein.
• Lower body includes areas such as buttock(gluteus maximus), the popliteal area on knee (tendons) and the ankle and foot (lateral,medial).

Tissue Types

• Tissues are groups of cells that share a common embryonic origin and work together to perform specialized activities.
• Tissues can be hard (bone), semisolid (fat), or liquid (blood)
• Functions of tissues include protection, support, communication among cells, and resistance to disease.
• Four basic tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue.
• Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs/cavities/ducts, and forms glands;
• Connective tissue protects and supports the body/organs;
• Muscular tissue generates the force for body structures to move and generate heat.
• Nervous tissue detects and responds to changes within/outside the body.
• Epithelial cells and some muscle/nerve cells are tightly joined, forming a functional unit where cell junctions are contact points between plasma membranes in tissue cells.
• The five main types of cell junctions are tight, adherens junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions.
• Epithelial tissue consists of cells in a continuous sheet with one or more layers.
• Cells in epithelial tissue are closely packed and held together by cell with little intercellular space.
• Epithelial tissue covers and lines throughout the body.
• Epithelial tissues have a free surface and at least one major function: -selective barriers to limit or aid substance transfer; -secretory surfaces to release its products; -protective surfaces to resist abrasive influences. There are lateral surfaces, basal lamina, basement membrane, reticular lamina, and connective tissue.
• Basement membrane is a thin extracellular layer with the basal and reticular lamina
• The basal lamina (contains proteins like laminin and collagen) is secreted by the epithelial cells.
• The reticular lamina (contains proteins such as collagen), is produced by connective tissue cells called fibroblasts.
• Epithelial tissue has its own nerve supply, and is avascular.
• Epithelial tissue combines with nervous tissue to form special organs such as those that pertain to smell, hearing, vision and touch.
• Epithelial tissue may be divided into covering/lining epithelium and glandular epithelium
• Covering/lining epithelium forms the outer covering of skin/some organs and the inner lining of blood vessels/ducts/body cavities/respitory/digestive/urinary & reprouctive systems.
• Glandular epithelium makes up the secreting portions of glands, as in the thyroid/adrenal and sweat glands.
• The types of covering and lining epithelia are simple or stratified epithelium.
• Classification if based on the arrangement and shape of its cells.
• Arrangement of cells vary from single (simple) to multiple (stratified) and with a pseudostratified arrangement
• Based on shape cells vary from squamous (flat), to cuboidal (cube-shape), columnar (column-like), or transitional (variable) cells.
• Simple squamous epithelium has a single layer of flat cells; centrally located nucleus and lines heart/vessels/lymphatics/air sacs of the lungs; used for filtration/diffusion/osmosis/secretion.
• Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of cube-shaped cells; large/round/centrally located nucleus; covers ovary surface/pigmented epithelium of the eye/lines kidney tubules/makes up secreting portion of some glands; used for secretion and absorption.
• Noncilliated Simple Columnar Epithelium is a single layer of nonciliated column-like cells; nucleus near base of cells; contains goblet cells (secrete mucus); with or without microvilli; lines the GI tract, the uterine tubes,uterus, efferent ducts of the testes, some paranasal sinuses, and some of the brain; used for secretion and absorption.
• Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium is a single layer of ciliated column-like cells with basal nuclei and some goblet cells; lines some bronchioles/tubes of repiratory tract, /central canal of the spinal cord, and ventricles of the brain; moves mucus and other substances by ciliary action.
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is not a true stratified tissue; their nuclei are not at different levels, but all the cells are attached to the membrane: -The pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium lines most airways of the upper respiratory tract. -The pseudostratified noncilliated columnar epithelium lines larger ducts of glands, epididymis, and part of the male urethra.
• Stratified squamous epithelium has several layers; cuboidal/columnar shape in deep layers; squamous cells form apical layer & several layers deep to it; cells from the basal layer replace surface cells as they shed: -Keratinized variety forms the superficial layer of skin. -Nonkeratinized variety lines wet surfaces such as the mouth/esophagus/larynx/pharynx and vagina.
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of two or more layers of cells in which the apical layer cells are cube-shaped; has ducts of adult sweat glands/esophageal glands and part of the male urethra; protection/limited secretion/absorption functions.
• Stratified columnar epithelium has several layers of irregulary shaped cells; the apical layer has columnar cells; some parts of the urethra/large excretory ducts of some glands, the small areas of anal mucous membrane, and the conjunctiva of the eye all; used for protection and secretion. lines part of urethra, large excretory ducts of some esophagus
• Transitional epithelium is appearance is variable (transitional); apical layer ranges from squamous (when stretched) to cuboidal (when relaxed); lines the uterus; and is used for distension.
• Glandular epithelium performs glandular secretion, which is accomplished by cells in clusters deep to a covering and lining that from a gland consist of a single cell or multiple cells
• All glands are classified into endocrine (into blood) or exocrine (into ducts)glands
• The secretory products (hormones) of endocrine glands are diffused after passing through intersititial fluids
• Examples of endocrine glads are the pituitary at the brain base, the pineal/thyroid/parathyroid/adrenal/pancreas and the ovaries/testes.
• The products of endocrine glands are used to regulate various body activities.
• Exocrine glands secrete their fluids into ducts.
• Examples of exocrine glands are sweat/oil and digetive such as salivary and pancreases .
• Exocrine glands produce substances such as the sweat/oil/earwax and digestive enzymes.
• The most abundant and widely tissues in the body are connective tissues and have a variety of function: -bind together, supports, and strengthen other body tissues -protects and insulates internal organs -serves the major transport system within the body
  • primary location of stored energy reserves

Connective Tissue

• Extracellular matrix and cells.
• Extracellular matrix is the material located between its widely spaced cells and consists of protein fibers and ground substance.
• Fibers are collagen (strength), elastic, (stretch), and/or, reticular (support/strength) fibers.
• Tissues either occur on the surfaces of/are highly vascular.
• The types of connective tissue are Fibroblasts, Adipocytes, Mast cells, White blood cells, Macrophages and Plasma cells
• Ground substance is the component of connective tissue between cells and the fibers, has fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified, and binds together,stores water, and provides a medium through which substances are exchanged.
• Embryonic connective tissue A. Mesenchyme B. Mucous connective tissue
• Mature connective tissue A. Loose connective tissue

1. Areolar connective tissue
2. Adipose tissue
3. Reticular connective tissue B. Dense connective tissue
4. Dense regular connective tissue
5. Dense irregular connective C. Liquid connective tissue

Muscles

• Muscle tissues consists of muscle fibers able to use ATP create force which is classify by Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth and
• Nervous tissues are consist by principle cell types and there support structure cells are called glial Action Pontentia- It happens by the conversion of stimul into electriel.
• Glial cells are the support structral for neurons and there cells provide them support protections homeostasis and all parts are the oligodendrt and microglia

Spinal column structure:

• The vertebral column resembles a curved rod, composed of 33 vertebrae and 23 intervertebral discs
• Twenty-four of the vertebrae in adults:C-7, T-12, L-5 & Five of the remaining nine vertebrae are fused to form the sacrum, and the remaining four constitute the coccygeal vertebrae.
• Spinal column functions include supporting the body, protecting the spinal cord, allowing movement, and provide attachment for muscles.
• Spinal Curve-Two Curves: The thoracic and spinal curve with original posterily
• One and two Secondary - Or lordie curves develope a resoult of acomodation of shelaton to to high postured
• Two cuves cervical and lumber and shew are vasal of origins positily . Convex are Called Seconday Curves

Typical vertebra:

• Portion of a vertebra has the vertebral body 1. Has enter part and the posterior neural arch with the pedicles and lamina. Typical - has Structure: Body are weight berring vertebral arch - spina cord
• Processes - Spinosinus/Transverse are artucaler
• intervatebral formen - Nerve Passage And the Disc contains - anulus fribusus Outer Ring, End plates- cartilinonous

Main ligments:

• Six Main ligmants are associated with inervatebral and sygapofseal joint, they antiier and postier longlinal, ligemtalum, flavurn

The Nerve Supply of the Diaphragm and more:

• The right/ left Phrenic nerves make up the motor nerve supply while the same nerves make of the sensory nerve together with the 6 intercostal Nersves .
• The abdomen is part of the wall with from skinned facia Muscolar Wall. that include urinator facilition. child but protect orgams with consistency internals pressure supporting the body for and the spine. with the 5 main ismuscular that Includes - Oblique and transversus Abodomis, Pyamialis is in Rectues And they devided from flat and verticaly muscle sides
• Flat muscles- they consist by the Oblique and transverses obdonomius while to vertice muscles are Pyamidily and rectus.

Anterior Chest Anatomy:

• Attachments- originately comes the Rebs is Inserted and Pubis Tuercles there Contalateral Contents compression, It intervited Thoraco abromals nerve and with nerve.
• Rectunes Abromious Inserin to the xiphoid or process
• Contaction pulls the sendon down to a increase verticies diameter of the thorax to lift most abdominal to protect or the area