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Questions and Answers
Which of the following best describes mutualism?
Which of the following best describes mutualism?
- An interaction where one species benefits and the other is harmed.
- An interaction where one species benefits and the other is unaffected.
- An interaction where both species benefit. (correct)
- An interaction where both species are harmed.
Obligatory mutualism implies that interacting species can survive and reproduce independently of each other.
Obligatory mutualism implies that interacting species can survive and reproduce independently of each other.
False (B)
Define 'coevolution' in the context of mutualistic relationships.
Define 'coevolution' in the context of mutualistic relationships.
Coevolution is the reciprocal evolutionary change between interacting species, driven by natural selection pressures each species imposes on the other. In mutualism, this often results in adaptations that enhance the benefits of the interaction for both partners.
In mycorrhizal associations, plants primarily provide ______ to fungi, while fungi enhance ______ uptake for plants.
In mycorrhizal associations, plants primarily provide ______ to fungi, while fungi enhance ______ uptake for plants.
Match the following interspecific interactions with their descriptions:
Match the following interspecific interactions with their descriptions:
Which of these is an example of exploitation?
Which of these is an example of exploitation?
Commensalism is a type of interaction where both species involved experience benefits.
Commensalism is a type of interaction where both species involved experience benefits.
Explain why mutualistic relationships are important for maintaining biodiversity in ecological communities.
Explain why mutualistic relationships are important for maintaining biodiversity in ecological communities.
Cleaner fish engage in a mutualistic relationship by feeding on ______ from larger 'client' fish, thus providing a cleaning service.
Cleaner fish engage in a mutualistic relationship by feeding on ______ from larger 'client' fish, thus providing a cleaning service.
What is the primary benefit zooxanthellae algae receive from their mutualistic relationship with coral?
What is the primary benefit zooxanthellae algae receive from their mutualistic relationship with coral?
Coral bleaching events are primarily caused by a decrease in water temperature, leading to the expulsion of zooxanthellae.
Coral bleaching events are primarily caused by a decrease in water temperature, leading to the expulsion of zooxanthellae.
Describe how ants and aphids engage in a facultative mutualistic relationship.
Describe how ants and aphids engage in a facultative mutualistic relationship.
The process of transferring pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is known as ______.
The process of transferring pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is known as ______.
Approximately what percentage of global food production relies on insect pollination?
Approximately what percentage of global food production relies on insect pollination?
Abiotic pollination refers to the transfer of pollen by animals.
Abiotic pollination refers to the transfer of pollen by animals.
Explain the concept of 'pollination syndromes' and their significance in plant-pollinator interactions.
Explain the concept of 'pollination syndromes' and their significance in plant-pollinator interactions.
Flowers pollinated by bees are typically brightly colored, especially in ______ and blue hues, and often possess sweet fragrances.
Flowers pollinated by bees are typically brightly colored, especially in ______ and blue hues, and often possess sweet fragrances.
Which floral characteristic is NOT typically associated with beetle-pollinated flowers?
Which floral characteristic is NOT typically associated with beetle-pollinated flowers?
Butterfly-pollinated flowers typically offer pollen as their primary reward because butterflies efficiently digest pollen.
Butterfly-pollinated flowers typically offer pollen as their primary reward because butterflies efficiently digest pollen.
Describe the characteristics of moth-pollinated flowers and explain why these traits are advantageous for moths.
Describe the characteristics of moth-pollinated flowers and explain why these traits are advantageous for moths.
Bird-pollinated flowers are often ______ in color and produce copious amounts of sugary nectar to meet the high energy demands of birds.
Bird-pollinated flowers are often ______ in color and produce copious amounts of sugary nectar to meet the high energy demands of birds.
Bat-pollinated flowers typically exhibit which set of characteristics?
Bat-pollinated flowers typically exhibit which set of characteristics?
Plant mimicry, where orchids resemble female bees, is an example of exploitation, not mutualism.
Plant mimicry, where orchids resemble female bees, is an example of exploitation, not mutualism.
Explain how the long length of the tubular flowers in Madagascar orchids provided evidence for coevolution and Darwin's prediction of a long-tongued moth.
Explain how the long length of the tubular flowers in Madagascar orchids provided evidence for coevolution and Darwin's prediction of a long-tongued moth.
In the fig wasp pollination mutualism, the female wasp enters the fig to ______ and lay her eggs, while also pollinating the fig flowers.
In the fig wasp pollination mutualism, the female wasp enters the fig to ______ and lay her eggs, while also pollinating the fig flowers.
What is the primary benefit for fig wasps in their mutualistic relationship with fig trees?
What is the primary benefit for fig wasps in their mutualistic relationship with fig trees?
In fig wasp pollination, male wasps are responsible for pollinating fig flowers.
In fig wasp pollination, male wasps are responsible for pollinating fig flowers.
Describe the process of seed dispersal and explain why it is crucial for plant survival.
Describe the process of seed dispersal and explain why it is crucial for plant survival.
Plants utilize both ______ agents, like animals, and ______ agents, like wind and water, for seed dispersal.
Plants utilize both ______ agents, like animals, and ______ agents, like wind and water, for seed dispersal.
Which of the following is an example of abiotic seed dispersal?
Which of the following is an example of abiotic seed dispersal?
Seed dispersal is primarily important for ensuring that seeds germinate directly beneath the parent plant to benefit from parental care.
Seed dispersal is primarily important for ensuring that seeds germinate directly beneath the parent plant to benefit from parental care.
Explain how mutualistic relationships contribute to the overall stability and functioning of ecosystems.
Explain how mutualistic relationships contribute to the overall stability and functioning of ecosystems.
Pollination syndromes represent the ______ of flower traits in response to natural selection by different pollen vectors.
Pollination syndromes represent the ______ of flower traits in response to natural selection by different pollen vectors.
Which of the following is NOT a typical mechanism that flowering plants use to prevent self-pollination?
Which of the following is NOT a typical mechanism that flowering plants use to prevent self-pollination?
Flowering plants have only evolved biotic pollination mechanisms, relying solely on animals for pollen transfer.
Flowering plants have only evolved biotic pollination mechanisms, relying solely on animals for pollen transfer.
Describe the evolutionary significance of co-speciation in mutualistic relationships.
Describe the evolutionary significance of co-speciation in mutualistic relationships.
Mutualism is often described as 'reciprocal ______' because each partner gains something beneficial from the interaction.
Mutualism is often described as 'reciprocal ______' because each partner gains something beneficial from the interaction.
Which of the following mutualistic relationships is considered obligatory?
Which of the following mutualistic relationships is considered obligatory?
Facultative mutualism is less important for ecosystem functioning compared to obligatory mutualism.
Facultative mutualism is less important for ecosystem functioning compared to obligatory mutualism.
Explain how the removal of cleaner fish from a reef ecosystem can affect fish species diversity.
Explain how the removal of cleaner fish from a reef ecosystem can affect fish species diversity.
Mycorrhizae fungi are essential for many plants, particularly in nutrient-poor environments, because they enhance the uptake of ______ and phosphorus.
Mycorrhizae fungi are essential for many plants, particularly in nutrient-poor environments, because they enhance the uptake of ______ and phosphorus.
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of mutualistic interactions?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of mutualistic interactions?
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates a mutualistic relationship?
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates a mutualistic relationship?
Obligatory mutualism describes a relationship where interacting species can survive and reproduce independently of each other.
Obligatory mutualism describes a relationship where interacting species can survive and reproduce independently of each other.
Explain how the removal of cleaner fish from a reef ecosystem could lead to a decrease in fish species diversity.
Explain how the removal of cleaner fish from a reef ecosystem could lead to a decrease in fish species diversity.
The mutualistic relationship between plant roots and fungi, where fungi enhance nutrient absorption for plants and receive sugars in return, is known as ________.
The mutualistic relationship between plant roots and fungi, where fungi enhance nutrient absorption for plants and receive sugars in return, is known as ________.
Match the pollination syndrome with the characteristic flower traits:
Match the pollination syndrome with the characteristic flower traits:
Coevolution is best described as:
Coevolution is best described as:
Commensalism is an interspecific interaction where one species benefits, and the other species is harmed.
Commensalism is an interspecific interaction where one species benefits, and the other species is harmed.
Explain how plant mimicry of female bees by certain orchids is a form of coevolution.
Explain how plant mimicry of female bees by certain orchids is a form of coevolution.
In the coral-zooxanthellae mutualism, the zooxanthellae, which are ________, provide the coral with sugars produced through photosynthesis.
In the coral-zooxanthellae mutualism, the zooxanthellae, which are ________, provide the coral with sugars produced through photosynthesis.
Which of the following is NOT a typical characteristic of bat-pollinated flowers?
Which of the following is NOT a typical characteristic of bat-pollinated flowers?
Flashcards
Mutualism
Mutualism
An interaction where both species benefit.
Exploitation
Exploitation
When one species benefits at the cost of another.
Commensalism
Commensalism
When one species benefits with no effect on the other.
Competition
Competition
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Mutualistic interactions
Mutualistic interactions
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Obligatory mutualism
Obligatory mutualism
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Facultative mutualism
Facultative mutualism
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Coevolution
Coevolution
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Mycorrhiza
Mycorrhiza
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Ectomycorrhiza
Ectomycorrhiza
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Endomycorrhiza
Endomycorrhiza
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Zooxanthellae
Zooxanthellae
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Ant farming
Ant farming
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Pollination
Pollination
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Pollination syndromes
Pollination syndromes
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Entomophily
Entomophily
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Bee/Wasp Pollination Flowers
Bee/Wasp Pollination Flowers
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Beetle pollinated flowers
Beetle pollinated flowers
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Butterfly pollinated flowers
Butterfly pollinated flowers
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Moth pollinated flowers
Moth pollinated flowers
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Bird pollinated flowers
Bird pollinated flowers
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Seed Dispersal
Seed Dispersal
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Bat pollinated flowers
Bat pollinated flowers
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Study Notes
Interspecific Interactions
- These comprise the interactions between different species in an ecological community.
- The four basic types of interactions are mutualism, exploitation, commensalism, and competition
Mutualism
- Defined as an interaction where both species benefit (+ +)
- Mutualistic interactions entail mutually beneficial species interactions, representing reciprocal exploitation
- Mutualists compose most of the biomass
- Mutualism can be obligatory, where one or both partners cannot survive without the other, or facultative, where partners engage in the relationship sometimes
Exploitation
- Defined as an interaction where one species benefits at the cost of another's well-being (+ -)
- This includes predation, where species hunt and kill, and parasitism, where a parasite lives closely and feeds off a host
Commensalism
- Defined as an interaction where one species benefits, with no effect on the other species (+ o)
Competition
- Defined as multiple organisms living in the same niche in competition over resources or space (- -)
Mutualism: Examples
- Almost all the plants that dominate grasslands, heaths, and forests have roots that have an intimate mutualistic association with fungi
- Most corals depend on the unicellular algae within their cells
- Flowering plants need their insect pollinators
- Many animals carry communities of microorganisms within their guts that they require for effective digestion
Mycorrhiza
- A mutualistic relationship exists between plants and fungi
- Fungi receive sugar from plants, and in return, assist plants in absorbing nutrients from the soil
- About 80% of flowering plants and all conifers have mycorrhizae
- Mycorrhizae either coat the outside of plants (ectomycorrhiza) or reside inside plant cell walls (endomycorrhiza) with complex morphology
Coral
- A zooxanthellae is a mutualistic partner of coral
- The zooxanthellae photosynthesizes and produces sugars for the coral
- Coral provides the zooxanthellae with protection and nitrogen
- Bleaching events occur when zooxanthellae are expelled and is related to sea temperature
Cleaner Fish
- There are about 45 species of cleaner fish
- Cleaner fish feed on ectoparasites, bacteria, and necrotic tissue of ‘client’ fish, benefiting from a reliable food source
- Client fish gain protection from infection
- Cleaner fish have community-wide importance via cleaner-client interactions
Ant Farming
- Ants cultivate various aphid species (homopterans)
- Ants receive sugar-rich honeydew secretions
- Some aphid species lost the ability to excrete waste on their own, so it depends entirely on ants milking them
- Aphids benefit from lower mortality rates
- Increased feeding and excretion rates
- Formation of larger colonies
Mutualisms: Pollination
- Most flowering plants engage in mutualistic relationships with animals to promote sexual reproduction and seed dispersal
- The reward for animals is often in the form of food, such as nectar, seeds, or fruit
- Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from a flower's male anther to its female stigma
- Pollination is essential for fertilization
- Pollen contains two nuclei: a sperm nucleus and a tube nucleus
- The sperm nucleus is protected in gametophyte tissue
- Pollen adheres to the stigma, initiating the growth of a pollen tube
- Fertilization commences when the tube extends toward the egg
- About 35% of global food production comes from crops that depend on insect pollination
- Flowering plants evolved mechanisms to prevent self-pollination
- Timing and morphology prevents self-pollination
- Biochemical compatibility is another form of defense
Pollination: Biotic Methods
- Bee pollination (melittophily)
- Wasp pollination
- Butterfly pollination (psychophily)
- Moth pollination (phalaenophily)
- Fly pollination (myophily, sapromyophily)
- Beetle pollination (cantharophily)
- Bird pollination (ornithophily)
- Bat pollination (chiropterophily)
Pollination: Abiotic Methods
- Wind Pollination (anemophily)
- Water Pollination (hydrophily)
- Approximately 80% of all pollination is biotic
- Pollinators are drawn to flowers by food presence (pollen/nectar)
Plant traits and natural selection
- Attracting loyal pollinators increases pollen transfer efficiency to the same plant species
- Pollination syndromes refer to flower traits adapted to natural selection by pollen vectors
Pollination Syndromes: Bees and Wasps
- Bees are the most important insect pollinators
- They rely on nectar and pollen
- Typically, bee-pollinated flowers have delicate fragrances
- Bees are attracted to bright hues, like yellow and blue
- The color red is dull
- Bees perceive ultraviolet light, some flowers have UV markings acting as nectar guides
Pollination Syndromes: Beetles
- Beetles pollinate flowers and the flowers have strong odors
- The scents of beetle-pollinated flowers may be spicy, fruity, or similar to decaying organic material
- Beetle-pollinated flowers are flattened or dish-shaped
- Beetle-pollinated flowers have readily accessible pollen
- Flowers consist of numerous parts that also provide stamen, petals, and food for chewing beetles
- The ovaries, in this instance, are safe from biting mouthparts
Pollination Syndromes: Butterflies
- Butterflies pollination relies on sight and smell
- Butterfly-pollinated flowers are showy, and pink or lavender in coloration
- Butterflies can see red and orange flowers
- Butterflies do not digest pollen
- More nectar is offered than pollen
- Butterfly-pollinated flowers have a uniquely-shaped long tube
- Butterfly-pollinated flowers have flat inflorescences
Pollination Syndromes: Moths
- Flowers pollinated by moths appear white or pale
- Flowers pollinated by moths are sweet-smelling
- Moth-pollinated flowers occur with night pollination
- Hawk moths (Sphingidae) are good pollinators
- This pollination works through hovering with rapid wingbeats
- A lot of nectar is produced
Pollination Syndromes: Birds
- Flowers are usually large, bright red or yellow
- Sugary nectar is produced
- The petals of the flower are curved
- Does not have a strong odour
- Birds do not have a strong sense of smell
Pollination Syndromes: Bats
- Pollination occurs at night
- Bat-pollinated flowers are large and showy
- Bat-pollinated flowers are light-colored
- Flowers open at night
- Flowers have stronge odours
Coevolution
- If a plant species adapts traits that make its flowers more attractive,
- Pollinators can also evolve to adapt those traits
- Joint evolution of of interactive species is called coevolution
- This includes selection that occurs during pollination, particularly with fig wasp populations
- Plant mimicry takes advantage of the sexual drive of organisms
- Some plants mimic the form of a female insect for pollination
Seed Dispersal
- A plant relies on finding fertile ground to disperse its seeds
- Plants must disperse seed away from their parent plant to avoid crowding
- Plants use biotic of abiotic methods for seed dispersal
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