International Relations: Self-Help Situation

Polarity and System Stability

• A bipolar system is allegedly more stable than a multi-polar system since the power balance between superpowers can be more accurately and reliably calculated.
• Kenneth Waltz argues that uncertainty increases as the number of international actors increase, making it more likely for a decision-maker to misjudge the intentions and actions of a potential foe.

Security Dilemma

• In a self-help system, it is rational to assume the worst, even if a state is arming for defensive purposes, as it is difficult to be sure of a rival's intentions.
• The security dilemma is regulated by balance-of-power politics.

Hegemonic Stability Thesis

• Neo-realism claims a central place in international political economy, arguing that a necessary condition for the formation and maintenance of a liberal international economy is that a single state should be able and willing to invest the resources and bear the burdens associated with the operation of such an economic order.

Balance of Power Mentality

• Realists believe that states tend to balance against challengers through the formation of defensive alliances, which is a strong behavioral expectation about the effects of anarchy on states.
• All states are obliged to pursue a balance of power strategy.

The History of European States

• The 18th Century saw principal states like Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia changing sides to preserve the balance of power.
• Napoleonic France attempted to destroy the European balance and establish French hegemony but was defeated by a European coalition.
• The Concert of Europe (1815-1914) maintained peace through flexible and overlapping alliances to ensure a balance of power as a deterrent to war.

Focus on Power

• Realists focus on actual or potential conflict between state actors and the use of force, examining how international stability is attained or maintained.
• Power is a key concept, with states aiming to gain power and considering military, security, or strategic issues as 'high politics'.
• Economic and social issues are viewed as less important or 'low politics'.

Realist Description of IR

• Interstate politics is a permanent bargaining game over the distribution of power, describing world politics as a state of war and a struggle for power.

Achieving Power

• States can achieve power by their own means, such as through population, industrialization, science, and technology.
• States can also achieve power through alliances, which are conditional and apply only if they remain in the power interests of the state.

Measurement and Indicators of Power

• Defense expenditures, military personnel, iron and steel production, energy consumption, total population, and gross national product (GNP) are indicators of power.
• David Singer emphasizes military, industrial, and demographic capabilities as crucial indicators.

Cooperation

• In an anarchical, self-help system, cooperation is difficult to achieve due to the uncertainty of knowing whether others will cooperate.
• The stag hunt dilemma illustrates the difficulty of cooperation, as individuals may choose to serve their self-interest rather than the common interest.