International Relations: Realism

• Ideas intended to explain facts and phenomena are theories.
• Theories are repeatedly tested.
• Theories are foundational principles and frameworks.
• Theories structure our understanding of complex phenomena.
• Theories are dynamic.
• Theories are the bedrock of knowledge across disciplines, providing lenses in how we view the universe.
• Theories, worldviews, and paradigms are the way which we see the world as individuals.
• These are lenses which can interpret certain ideas.
• They provide us a way to make meaning in the world.
• There is no central authority at the international level; there is anarchy.
• States are constantly jostling for power in this anarchical environment.
• The UN does not have binding authority.

Realism

• Realism is the first version of international relations.
• It is a pragmatic view of human nature.
• States are inherently self-interested.
• There is a constant struggle for power and security amongst states
• Global politics is a zero-sum game.
• One state’s gain is another’s loss.

Liberalism

• Cooperation and interdependence amongst states leads to global peace
• International institutions and global norms mitigate the anarchy of the international system.
• Collective security, democratic peace, and economic interdependence foster stability.

Constructivism

• Constructivism diverges from materialists' focus.
• Constructivism emphasizes roles of ideas, beliefs, and identities.
• Key structures of global politics are socially constructed through culture, language, and shared understandings.
• Longstanding theories become common sense, even if outdated.

Critical vs Problem Solving Theory

• Problem-solving theory takes a pragmatic approach to theory building.
• It focuses on resolving immediate issues and conflicts.
• Problem-solving theory accepts existing global political structures as unchangeable.
• It identifies solutions that can address international challenges within the current framework.
• It relies on empirical data and quantitative analysis.
• Critical theory challenges and scrutinizes underlying global structures.
• Critical theory focuses on issues of inequality, exploitation, and oppression, bringing transformative change.
• Critical theory explores potential for beneficial change, rather than maintaining existing systems.
• It emphasizes the role of ideas and ideologies in shaping international relations.
• Realists may tackle the Suez Canal issue via military force.
• Metacognition involves how we understand and control our minds.
• Metacognition can generate higher achievement in every domain.
• Understanding one's mind helps direct it better.
• Metacognition can decrease addictive behaviors and boost mental performance.
• It's important to train attention and learn to control emotions.
• Understanding and reflecting on one's own biases is important.
• Concepts are fundamental building blocks of thought.
• They are mental representations objects, events, or ideas.
• Concepts provide mental organization.
• Concepts are defined and used within specific disciplines.

Identity Politics

• Identity politics emerged during civil rights movements in the 1960s/70s.
• Carmichael and Hamilton were involved.
• "Black Power” addressed significant challenges encountered by black communities.
• Blacks were subjected to intense oppression.
• The feminist movement included Friedan and her Feminist mystique.
• It emphasized women’s rights and gender equality.
• The movement included the 1st wave (right to vote), 2nd wave (gender equality issues), and 3rd wave (post me too).
• In the 1980s, struggles occurred with identities in politics.
• Stuart Hall focused on race and ethnicity.
• Gay rights movements occurred and identities shaped political experiences.
• Experiences of society was influenced by identities.
• In the 1990s, intersectionality was highlighted by Crenshaw.
• Intersectionality highlights the experiences of people with multiple identities (e.g., a black woman).
• In the 2000s, identity connected to globalization.
• Social media and digital activism are related to identity.
• Fukuyama studied how identity politics have led to a rise in populism, mainly in western democracies.
• Identity politics provide insights into how social identities shape and are shaped by politics
• They also look at how minority groups experience political struggle.
• Narratives are stories told about things or ourselves.
• Narratives tell accounts of what happens to different people.
• Narratives shape identity politics.
• Identity is not static.
• We build on defining what we are over time.
• We create a sense of belonging with our groups.
• Narratives can challenge and reinforce power structures.
• Universal human rights are rights that cannot be taken away.
• However, they are subject to scrutiny because they are a creation of the liberal West.
• What is deemed an essential right to one culture may not be the same in a different culture.
• Goals include defining and contrasting foreign policy, diplomacy, and their histories, explaining some major principles, structures, and instruments of Canadian foreign policy, and appreciating how policy briefs fit into the foreign policy space.
• Diplomacy refers to the practice of managing international relations through dialogue, negotiation, and other peaceful means.
• It's used to resolve conflicts, build alliances, and establish frameworks for cooperation.
• Foreign policy comprises strategies states adopt to interact with other international actors.
• This includes setting priorities, forming alliances, and addressing global issues.
• Foreign policy is the blueprint.
• Diplomacy is the mechanism used to achieve the goals of foreign policy.
• "Don’t shoot the messenger” is a cornerstone of diplomatic norms.
• This originates from the Warring States period in China.
• Canadian Indigenous tribes practiced their own form of diplomacy to maintain peace and prevent conflict.
• European diplomacy arose in the Renaissance, thanks to Italian states.
• The Treaty of Westphalia formalizes the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference.
• Europeans begin to respect the idea of a state and its sovereignty.
• States have authority of their internal affairs without external intervention.
• There are caveats to European diplomatic norms.
• European states invaded each other, and colonial expansion is contradicting.
• Westphalian principles were central to Europe but used to justify domination of foreign countries.
• Modern diplomacy becomes institutionalized.
• The UN and other international organizations are creations of it.
• Other characteristics include cold war diplomacy and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.
• What is policy involves soft power that 'influences hearts and minds', and hard power.
• A course of action or inaction by governments or organizations addresses a problem or achieve specific objectives.
• It involves decisions around things like goals and priorities.
• Foreign policy involves strategies and decisions a state will adopt to interact with other states.
• Canada emphasizes peacekeeping, multilateralism, and upholding human rights.
• It's shaped by domestic values, historical values, and geopolitical issues
• The policy cycle involves agenda setting.
• Problems are identified and prioritized; e.g., climate change, global change, and security.
• The problems appear on the agenda when they get enough attention.
• Formulation is where policy briefs are written.
• Governments choose actions they are going to take when decision making.
• An example is Canada's decision to join different NATO peacekeeping missions.
• Policy evaluation assesses whether a policy has met its objective.
• For example, in the war in Afghanistan, the public viewed the war as controversial.

Canadian Foreign Policy

• Canadian foreign policy has a historical context.
• Canadian foreign policy has rooted in historical ties to Britain and proximity to the USA.
• Britain created Canadian foreign policy until the Statute of Westminster.
• By WW2, Canada contributed significantly to diplomacy and the war.
• Post-war, foreign policy evolved significantly with goals of avoiding another conflict.
• There was a liberal approach to cooperation to avoid war.
• Canada is a founding member of the UN.
• During the 1956 Suez Crisis, Canada became known for being a peacekeeping nation.
• It has been seen as a middle power.
• FIPA positions Canada as a global leader promoting women’s empowerment which reinforces Canada’s reputation.
• Multilateralism is a key characteristic; cooperation with multiple organizations/states.
• Peacekeeping/peacebuilding is important to foreign policy, but the former has diminished.
• Strategic balancing with the USA is also important; balancing being friends with but not being overtaken by the US.
• Global Affairs Canada (GAC) oversees Canadian foreign policy.
• Canada ensures its international priorities align with domestic priorities.
• It is also heavily influenced by the prime minister and cabinet; especially the minister of foreign affairs.
• Multiple instruments are used; including diplomacy, trade agreements, and economic sanctions.
• Effective policy briefs are concise and focused.
• They present the most critical information up front.
• They provide clear, actionable steps that are specific and feasible.
• They incorporate evidence and address risks and benefits.
• They are tailored to the audience, focusing on GAC for assignments.
• The international system faces anarchy due to lack of a central authority.
• The "security dilemma" often emerges.
• Social authority theory involves an agreement among individuals to form a society and govern it.
• It originates in works by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau.
• Hobbes emphasized the need for absolute sovereignty.
• Locke emphasized the protection of natural rights.
• Rousseau pushed for collective sovereignty and the general will as an expression of freedom and equality.
• There are three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational.
• Traditional authority is based on established beliefs in tradition and heritage.
• Monarchies are examples of traditional authority.
• Charismatic authority stems from the personal qualities of individuals who inspire loyalty.
• Nelson Mandela is an example of charismatic authority.
• Legal-rational authority involves rules and laws applied impersonally and systematically.
• Realism sees national interests and security as most important.

Power

• Realism pursues security and dominance.
• Realists argue that absence of central authority compels them to rely on their own abilities to ensure their survival.
• Liberalism places importance on military and economic strength.
• The "balance of power" is there to prevent one state from being overly dominant.
• Liberalism argues power extends beyond military might.
• Liberalism includes economic and soft power.
• It influences international norms and laws.
• Through international organizations, states can achieve mutual gains.
• Cooperation occurs together in a rules-based international order
• Constructionism argues power operates through the social construction of reality.
• Ideas, beliefs, and values shape international relations and interests of states.
• Changes in norms can significantly alter how power is distributed.
• Identity of a state + power influences whether foreign policy is hawkish or dovish.
• Decision-making power gives actors the ability to influence the decisions of another actor.
• Non-decisions and agenda control: The ability to control the agenda and exclude certain issues from being discussed.
• Ideological power/shaping preferences shapes people's perceptions.
• Authority refers to the recognized power or right to make decisions, to govern, or to command.
• Legitimacy is the acceptance and justification of that authority by those subject to its decisions or governance
• The relationship between these is crucial for stability.

States and Nations

• The modern state has evolved.
• The state has legitimate authority and can have a monopoly over violence (e.g., armies)
• Ethnicity and religion can influence statehood.
• Conflict tends to happen when identities don't line up with borders
• A state is a political entity with defined territory.
• It has permanent populations, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.
• Some states can exist with multiple nations inside.
• Nations are a group of people who share common cultural elements.
• They may not coincide with a state’s boundaries.
• Small differences can be major division points.
• Sovereignty is crucial in understanding interactions between countries.
• States have supreme authority within their borders.
• States restrict conflict.
• A state is a political entity in a defined territory, whereas a nation is people
• There is often confusion between the terms
• A nation includes political, cultural, psychological components.
• A nation includes a group of people who associate themselves as a natural political identity.

Origins of National Identity

• The primordial view sees it as historically embedded.
• National identity is forced by common descent, territory, and language
• Nationalism is thus characterized by deep emotional attachment/kinship ties
• Nations evolve around ethnic communities.
• The modernist view sees national identity formed as a response to historical circumstances
• The emergence of capitalist economies weakened social bonds
• The state is involved in creating an understanding of the nation and creating a sense of nationalism
• The spread of literacy and education helps create nationalism
• International organizations and global governance view that the shift from viewing sovereignty as absolute power, to regulated power is important.
• Soft power motivations and alliances are important.
• Global governance and international organizations are often conflated with one another, but are distinct.
• It is a system of cooperation under anarchy.
• States in a global governance system cooperate voluntarily because it is in their interests
• Global governance is the management of global policies.
• Instruments provide mechanisms through which states pursue their self-interest.
• Arenas facilitate debate and information exchange, serving as permanent institutions of conference diplomacy.
• Actors enable states to take concerted action which requires some measure of pooled sovereignty
• Combining sovereignty achieves goals.
• IOs involve complex interdependence.
• Because we are interrelated, "we have needs and weaknesses that overlap which we cannot address on our own."
• National organizations reflect collective interests of states.
• Appendages of states system are new forms of state control. .
• The UN was established through the San Francisco conference
• Its aims are to safeguard peace and security, reaffirm faith in human rights, and uphold respect in international law.
• The UN has evolved over time.
• Member nations are like a parliament with each having a vote.
• Its security council contains 5 permanent members with veto powers: the victors of WW2 (US, China, France, Russia, & UK).
• Sanctions and military force for self defence are methods of enforcement.
• The R2P principle says states have a responsibility to protect.
• The UNSC has been critiqued for not reflecting current geopolitical realities.
• The WHO is an agency of the UN.
• It promotes health on a global scale.
• The US opted to leave WHO
• The ICC is considered a last resort that can hold P-5 countries accountable for atrocities.
• NGOs are private and non-commercial.
• They design and implement development-related projects.
• Transnational corporations control economic activity in two or more countries.
• They're influential in global development and historically, colonization.
• Their GDPs can be greater than states.
• They are often drawn to states with limited human rights, where they can take advantage of labour.
• They maximize economic power.
• Colonialism involves acquiring full or partial control of another country
• It is marked by bureaucratic elitism, statism, and hegemonic ideologies.
• Settler colonialism involves territories annexed by Europeans.
• Modern colonialism occurred post-Colombian (1492).
• The British East India Trading Company prioritized the accumulation of state wealth and advocated for export of goods over imports
• The company was the first trans-national company and had a large, well-trained military.
• The unchecked company rule was due to lack of oversight by the crown.
• England had more manpower involved in specific areas of the colonies.
• Opium War occurred due to the Treaty of Nanking 1842 giving Britain more power in China
• Colonies were a source of raw materials and markets for the industrial revolution.
• Textile industry was a cornerstone of industry.
• Post WWII, colonies were less profitable and less efficient.

Global Political Economy

• The industrial revolution/colonialism marked a change in production.
• European states promoted capitalism which favored wealth accumulation by a minority of persons.
• There was a rise of imperialism that imposed policies of foreign places.
• Colonies became sources of raw materials.
• Global community needed to rethink trade policies because of WW1 and WW2.
• During WW1 and WW2, the US focused on policies that supported nationalism.
• War led to leaders wanting to promote global cooperation.
• The US became dominant and was central in developing the post-war world order.
• There were different systems proposed by Keynes and White.
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank came as a result.
• The IMF looks to ensure stability of international monetary systems and focuses on macroeconomics.
• The IBRD looks to reduce poverty and provides loans and assistance for infrastructure.
• GATT - WTO was designed to be temporary and reduces tariffs and trade barriers, and oversees trade rules.
• 1950-1975 made the Bretton Woods system work very well.
• The 1970s marked a shift to more neoliberal policies.
• Neoliberalism is a political approach that focuses on liberalization, deregulation, privatization, stabilization, and export orientation.
• It means a dependency of foreign capital.

Environment

• The Anthropocene involves humanity’s effect on the Earth.
• Crutzen and Stroemer claim Earth is in a new geological era from human influence
• Countries with industrial economies have a greater impact on environment.
• Climate change is considered a global issue primarily caused by human activity.
• Malthus argued that population growth would lead to societal collapse.
• There is also growing concern around “population bomb”
• Rostow theorized that societies progress through certain stages.
• Climate issues have led to increased in frequency of extreme weather, impact on ecosystems, and melting of poles
• Rising sea levels threaten islands and coastal communities.
• Addressing climate change is considered a collective action problem given the difficulty for countries to do their fair share.
• Assigning responsibility involves mitigation which refers to reducing the causes of climate change, and adaptation which entails adjusting natural or human systems in response to climate stimuli
• Government actions include implementing policies aimed at mitigation and adaptation.
• Carbon pricing incentivizes companies to reduce carbon emissions.
• There are also carbon taxes and externalities.
• Other governmental responses include renewable energy incentives, urban planning reforms, and enhancing public transport.
• International climate agreements, like the Paris agreement, work to set national targets.
• Action includes an individual’s lifestyle choices and reducing one's carbon footprint.
• Role of corporations includes adopting sustainable practices.
• Awareness that sustainability is crucial for companies has been increasing.
• Indigenous worldviews offer alternative insights with a holistic understanding of nature.
• Traditional ecological knowledge is being used more.

Review

• Theories are a set of ideas to explain facts and phenomenon.
• Foundational principles and frameworks guide research.
• Realism has a pragmatic view of human nature and emphasizes struggle for power.
• In Realism, global politics are zero sum game.
• Liberalism is optimistic and sees cooperation leading to peace.
• Constructivism emphasizes role of ideas and identities where structures are socially constructed.
• Problem-solving theory operates within the existing world and focuses on issues that are most immediate
• Critical theory challenges underlying structures that shape the global political landscape.
• Intersectionality develops and protects identities.
• Narratives shapes identity politics.
• Narratives create social imagination necessary for group formation
• Narratives are subject to scrutiny due to lack of universality and is rooted in Western philosophy.
• Foreign policy is how states interact with each other through diplomacy.
• Foreign policy sets priorities, alliances, and other global issues via diplomacy.
• Canadian foreign policy involves multilateralism and ensuring human rights.
• Authority power and legitimacy stems from social authority theory.
• States and nations have sovereignty and authority within their borders.
• There is Primordialism and Organic views of global governance.
• Liberal views potential for cooperation and soft power.
• In constructivism, power operates through the social structure of reality.
• UN was created in San Francisco post WW2 and serves multiple functions.
• NGOs aim to achieve goals through non-violence.
• TNCs control economic activities and hold immense influence. Global political economy operates with capitalism, technological advancements, and commodification of labour.