International Relations and BRICS Overview

Global (Dis)orders

• Global (dis)orders are a key concept in the discipline of International Relations
• Order refers to structured power arrangements, norms, institutions, and practices shaping interactions among states and other actors in the international system.
• Order encompasses rules, principles, and expectations guiding behavior, reducing uncertainty, and enabling cooperation or competition in global politics
• Order provides stability by mitigating the anarchic nature of the international system and reducing the likelihood of conflict.
• Order facilitates cooperation by creating predictable interactions enabling pursuit of goals like economic stability, security, or protection.
• Order reflects power and legitimacy; it is shaped by dominant powers embedding their interests and values within structures. Legitimacy from other actors is vital for endurance, balancing coercion with consent
• Orders are used to describe and analyse historical power and governance patterns in the international system.
  • Westphalian Order (1648): Based on state sovereignty and non-intervention, emerging from the Peace of Westphalia.
  • Post-World War II Liberal Order: Led by the United States (US), characterized by multilateral institutions (e.g., UN, WTO), free trade, and the promotion of democracy.
  • Emerging Multipolar Order: With the rise of powers like China and India, the liberal order is increasingly challenged, suggesting a shift toward a more fragmented or multipolar order

Types of International Political Orders

• Unipolar: Dominated by a single superpower with disproportionate military, economic, and ideological influence.
• Bipolar: Dominated by two superpowers dividing the world into opposing blocs with distinct ideologies, economic systems and military alliances. A clear example is US vs. USSR during the Cold War.
• Multipolar: Characterized by several significant powers, none dominant enough to unilaterally shape the international system. Examples include pre-World War I Europe or emerging post-Cold War world with powers like the US, China, the EU, India, and Russia

Unipolar Systems

• Dominated by a single superpower
• Asymmetric power distribution: other states significantly weaker
• Global leadership: the superpower often establishes and enforces the rules of the international system (e.g., trade, security arrangements)

Bipolar Systems

• Dominated by two superpowers
• Rigid blocs: fixed alliances with exclusive spheres of influence and clear boundaries
• Mutual deterrence: superpowers avoid direct conflict due to high costs (especially with nuclear arms)

Multipolar Systems

• Characterized by several significant powers
• Dynamic power balances: frequent shifts in alliances and coalitions based on shared interests
• Complex interdependence: states are connected through trade, diplomacy, and multilateral institutions creating interdependence and cooperation but also potential for conflict

State Behavior in Different Orders

• Unipolar: Dominant power acts as a global leader, providing public goods (e.g., security, economic stability) but sometimes acts unilaterally
• Bipolar: Superpowers focus on maintaining and expanding spheres of influence through proxy conflicts, arms races and ideological competition
• Multipolar: States pursue pragmatic and flexible foreign policies, forming temporary alliances or partnerships, and balancing against rising powers; competition for regional dominance lead to conflicts, trade wars and diplomatic disputes

Alliance Dynamics in Different Orders

• Unipolar: Alliances are heavily dependent on the hegemon (power) with significant capacity to reward or punish allies
• Bipolar: Alliances are cohesive with little room for defection due to high stakes; proxy wars are common
• Multipolar: Alliances are less rigid, often issue-specific; regional powers dominate local alliances; shifting coalitions are common

Consequences of Different Orders

• Unipolar: Potential for stability but also overreach, resentment from weaker states, and instability
• Bipolar: Relative stability but also regional instability and ideological divides
• Multipolar: Greater instability, risk of miscalculation, and conflict; opportunities for diverse multilateral cooperation frameworks and forums

From Cold War to Unipolarity

• Cold War: Defined by the rivalry between the US and the USSR with opposing ideologies
• Collapse of Bipolarity: The end of bipolarity in 1991 led to an increase in Unipolarity led by the US
• Unipolar "Moment": This shift toward unipolarity gave rise to a world order dominated by the US in the 1990s. A major belief during this time was that liberal democracy and free markets would spread globally and former socialist countries would integrate into this liberal world order.

The Washington Consensus

• Term coined by economist John Williamson (1989)
• Set of economic policy reforms recommended for Latin American countries by the U.S. Treasury, the IMF, and the World Bank in response to debt crises
• 10 Policy Prescriptions: Fiscal Discipline, Reordering Public Expenditure, Tax Reform, Liberalizing Interest Rates, Competitive Exchange Rates, Trade Liberalization, Liberalization of Foreign Direct Investment, Privatization, Deregulation and Secure Property Rights

How the Washington Consensus Became Global

• Conditional Lending: The IMF and World Bank played a pivotal role, providing loans only if recipient countries agreed to implementing specified reforms aligned with Washington Consensus policies
• Influence of U.S. Policy: U.S. policymakers strongly influenced the focus on market-oriented reforms in the IMF and World Bank.

From 2008 Crisis to Multipolarity

• 2008 financial crisis revealed vulnerabilities in the US led global order
• Crisis destabilized worldwide economies and shook confidence in the liberal economic model
• Crisis catalyzed skepticism towards globalization and liberal capitalism and allowed other powers (especially China) to gain more influence

Multipolarity

• Multiple power centers compete for influence challenging the West's dominance
• An increase in power for China and Russia led to this shift

The BRICS

• Collectively represent a significant portion of the world's population, landmass, and resources
• Seen as emblematic of shifting global power dynamics away from a purely Western-dominated system
• Have pushed for reforms in global economic governance to give emerging economies more voice and power in the system

The BRICS' Challenge

• Critiques of Western-centric institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and WTO. Viewing those as perpetuating Western economic dominance
• Sought to develop alternative frameworks/institutions, like the New Development Bank (NDB)

The Rise of China and Russia

• China under President Xi Jinping adopted a more assertive foreign policy, leveraging economic growth, expanding influence and making claims
• Russia under Putin sought to reassert itself as a global power and challenged Western influence, particularly in Ukraine

Challenges to the Liberal Order

• Internal threats like nationalist-populist movements and economic inequality
• External threats like the rise of China, Russia's assertiveness, and other geopolitical challenges

US Politics and Policy

• Obama's "Pivot to Asia": Responding to China's influence in the Asia-Pacific region
• Trump's Nationalist Foreign Policy: A departure from traditional US foreign policy emphasizing US interests over multilateralism. Criticized globalization, questioned NATO, and pulled out of agreements

Conclusion

Numerous factors have influenced shifts in global (dis)orders. The international landscape is dynamic with a rise of new powers and challenges to existing architectures leading to a multipolar system. These shifts raise questions about future international governance structures.

Test your knowledge on the BRICS countries and their impact on global governance. This quiz covers the main objectives of BRICS, their perception of established institutions, and the characteristics of international political orders. Challenge yourself to see how well you understand the dynamics of multipolar and unipolar systems.