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Questions and Answers
What is the primary goal of the BRICS countries in terms of global governance?
What is the primary goal of the BRICS countries in terms of global governance?
Which of the following countries is NOT a member of the BRICS?
Which of the following countries is NOT a member of the BRICS?
What institution was established by the BRICS to provide financing for development projects?
What institution was established by the BRICS to provide financing for development projects?
What characteristic is shared by the economies of the BRICS countries?
What characteristic is shared by the economies of the BRICS countries?
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How do BRICS countries perceive established institutions like the IMF and World Bank?
How do BRICS countries perceive established institutions like the IMF and World Bank?
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What is a characteristic feature of a unipolar international system?
What is a characteristic feature of a unipolar international system?
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What typically causes an international order to evolve or collapse?
What typically causes an international order to evolve or collapse?
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How does the structure of the international system affect state behaviors?
How does the structure of the international system affect state behaviors?
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What role does a unipolar state typically play in the international system?
What role does a unipolar state typically play in the international system?
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What is a key implication of the rise of multipolar orders?
What is a key implication of the rise of multipolar orders?
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According to the content, which of the following is NOT a type of international political order?
According to the content, which of the following is NOT a type of international political order?
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Why is the behavior of a unipolar state sometimes considered unilateral?
Why is the behavior of a unipolar state sometimes considered unilateral?
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What was the primary purpose of the Washington Consensus as described by John Williamson?
What was the primary purpose of the Washington Consensus as described by John Williamson?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the 10 policy prescriptions of the Washington Consensus?
Which of the following is NOT one of the 10 policy prescriptions of the Washington Consensus?
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Why was fiscal discipline emphasized in the Washington Consensus?
Why was fiscal discipline emphasized in the Washington Consensus?
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What is the goal of competitive exchange rates within the Washington Consensus framework?
What is the goal of competitive exchange rates within the Washington Consensus framework?
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Trade liberalization within the Washington Consensus is aimed at:
Trade liberalization within the Washington Consensus is aimed at:
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Which aspect of the Washington Consensus focuses on improving resource allocation?
Which aspect of the Washington Consensus focuses on improving resource allocation?
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What effect does securing property rights have according to the Washington Consensus?
What effect does securing property rights have according to the Washington Consensus?
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The liberalization of foreign direct investment (FDI) is aimed at:
The liberalization of foreign direct investment (FDI) is aimed at:
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Deregulation in the context of the Washington Consensus is intended to:
Deregulation in the context of the Washington Consensus is intended to:
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What global shift has been catalyzed by the economic downturn mentioned?
What global shift has been catalyzed by the economic downturn mentioned?
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What initiative has China undertaken to enhance its global influence?
What initiative has China undertaken to enhance its global influence?
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What was a significant action taken by Russia under Vladimir Putin in 2014?
What was a significant action taken by Russia under Vladimir Putin in 2014?
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Which of the following countries is considered an emerging economic power along with China?
Which of the following countries is considered an emerging economic power along with China?
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What term has been used to describe the current tensions between Russia and the West?
What term has been used to describe the current tensions between Russia and the West?
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How has Xi Jinping characterized China's role in global politics?
How has Xi Jinping characterized China's role in global politics?
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What internal challenges to the liberal order have been identified by the 2020s?
What internal challenges to the liberal order have been identified by the 2020s?
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What consequence of Russia's actions in Ukraine has been highlighted?
What consequence of Russia's actions in Ukraine has been highlighted?
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What has the rise of China and Russia challenged in the global context?
What has the rise of China and Russia challenged in the global context?
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Which group of countries is often associated with emerging powers alongside China and Russia?
Which group of countries is often associated with emerging powers alongside China and Russia?
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What is the main goal of trade liberalization?
What is the main goal of trade liberalization?
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What role did privatization play in the Washington Consensus?
What role did privatization play in the Washington Consensus?
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Which aspect of the Washington Consensus did deregulation address?
Which aspect of the Washington Consensus did deregulation address?
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How was market liberalization perceived by the Washington Consensus?
How was market liberalization perceived by the Washington Consensus?
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What was the primary mechanism through which the Washington Consensus was promoted globally?
What was the primary mechanism through which the Washington Consensus was promoted globally?
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What influence did U.S. policy have on the Washington Consensus?
What influence did U.S. policy have on the Washington Consensus?
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What effect did the 2008 Financial Crisis have on the global economic model?
What effect did the 2008 Financial Crisis have on the global economic model?
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Which market condition was a primary concern addressed by the Washington Consensus?
Which market condition was a primary concern addressed by the Washington Consensus?
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What lasting impact did the Washington Consensus have on developing countries?
What lasting impact did the Washington Consensus have on developing countries?
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What was one of the primary motivations behind the privatization of state-owned enterprises under the Washington Consensus?
What was one of the primary motivations behind the privatization of state-owned enterprises under the Washington Consensus?
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Study Notes
Global (Dis)orders
- Global (dis)orders are a key concept in the discipline of International Relations
- Order refers to structured power arrangements, norms, institutions, and practices shaping interactions among states and other actors in the international system.
- Order encompasses rules, principles, and expectations guiding behavior, reducing uncertainty, and enabling cooperation or competition in global politics
- Order provides stability by mitigating the anarchic nature of the international system and reducing the likelihood of conflict.
- Order facilitates cooperation by creating predictable interactions enabling pursuit of goals like economic stability, security, or protection.
- Order reflects power and legitimacy; it is shaped by dominant powers embedding their interests and values within structures. Legitimacy from other actors is vital for endurance, balancing coercion with consent
- Orders are used to describe and analyse historical power and governance patterns in the international system.
- Westphalian Order (1648): Based on state sovereignty and non-intervention, emerging from the Peace of Westphalia.
- Post-World War II Liberal Order: Led by the United States (US), characterized by multilateral institutions (e.g., UN, WTO), free trade, and the promotion of democracy.
- Emerging Multipolar Order: With the rise of powers like China and India, the liberal order is increasingly challenged, suggesting a shift toward a more fragmented or multipolar order
Types of International Political Orders
- Unipolar: Dominated by a single superpower with disproportionate military, economic, and ideological influence.
- Bipolar: Dominated by two superpowers dividing the world into opposing blocs with distinct ideologies, economic systems and military alliances. A clear example is US vs. USSR during the Cold War.
- Multipolar: Characterized by several significant powers, none dominant enough to unilaterally shape the international system. Examples include pre-World War I Europe or emerging post-Cold War world with powers like the US, China, the EU, India, and Russia
Unipolar Systems
- Dominated by a single superpower
- Asymmetric power distribution: other states significantly weaker
- Global leadership: the superpower often establishes and enforces the rules of the international system (e.g., trade, security arrangements)
Bipolar Systems
- Dominated by two superpowers
- Rigid blocs: fixed alliances with exclusive spheres of influence and clear boundaries
- Mutual deterrence: superpowers avoid direct conflict due to high costs (especially with nuclear arms)
Multipolar Systems
- Characterized by several significant powers
- Dynamic power balances: frequent shifts in alliances and coalitions based on shared interests
- Complex interdependence: states are connected through trade, diplomacy, and multilateral institutions creating interdependence and cooperation but also potential for conflict
State Behavior in Different Orders
- Unipolar: Dominant power acts as a global leader, providing public goods (e.g., security, economic stability) but sometimes acts unilaterally
- Bipolar: Superpowers focus on maintaining and expanding spheres of influence through proxy conflicts, arms races and ideological competition
- Multipolar: States pursue pragmatic and flexible foreign policies, forming temporary alliances or partnerships, and balancing against rising powers; competition for regional dominance lead to conflicts, trade wars and diplomatic disputes
Alliance Dynamics in Different Orders
- Unipolar: Alliances are heavily dependent on the hegemon (power) with significant capacity to reward or punish allies
- Bipolar: Alliances are cohesive with little room for defection due to high stakes; proxy wars are common
- Multipolar: Alliances are less rigid, often issue-specific; regional powers dominate local alliances; shifting coalitions are common
Consequences of Different Orders
- Unipolar: Potential for stability but also overreach, resentment from weaker states, and instability
- Bipolar: Relative stability but also regional instability and ideological divides
- Multipolar: Greater instability, risk of miscalculation, and conflict; opportunities for diverse multilateral cooperation frameworks and forums
From Cold War to Unipolarity
- Cold War: Defined by the rivalry between the US and the USSR with opposing ideologies
- Collapse of Bipolarity: The end of bipolarity in 1991 led to an increase in Unipolarity led by the US
- Unipolar "Moment": This shift toward unipolarity gave rise to a world order dominated by the US in the 1990s. A major belief during this time was that liberal democracy and free markets would spread globally and former socialist countries would integrate into this liberal world order.
The Washington Consensus
- Term coined by economist John Williamson (1989)
- Set of economic policy reforms recommended for Latin American countries by the U.S. Treasury, the IMF, and the World Bank in response to debt crises
- 10 Policy Prescriptions: Fiscal Discipline, Reordering Public Expenditure, Tax Reform, Liberalizing Interest Rates, Competitive Exchange Rates, Trade Liberalization, Liberalization of Foreign Direct Investment, Privatization, Deregulation and Secure Property Rights
How the Washington Consensus Became Global
- Conditional Lending: The IMF and World Bank played a pivotal role, providing loans only if recipient countries agreed to implementing specified reforms aligned with Washington Consensus policies
- Influence of U.S. Policy: U.S. policymakers strongly influenced the focus on market-oriented reforms in the IMF and World Bank.
From 2008 Crisis to Multipolarity
- 2008 financial crisis revealed vulnerabilities in the US led global order
- Crisis destabilized worldwide economies and shook confidence in the liberal economic model
- Crisis catalyzed skepticism towards globalization and liberal capitalism and allowed other powers (especially China) to gain more influence
Multipolarity
- Multiple power centers compete for influence challenging the West's dominance
- An increase in power for China and Russia led to this shift
The BRICS
- Collectively represent a significant portion of the world's population, landmass, and resources
- Seen as emblematic of shifting global power dynamics away from a purely Western-dominated system
- Have pushed for reforms in global economic governance to give emerging economies more voice and power in the system
The BRICS' Challenge
- Critiques of Western-centric institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and WTO. Viewing those as perpetuating Western economic dominance
- Sought to develop alternative frameworks/institutions, like the New Development Bank (NDB)
The Rise of China and Russia
- China under President Xi Jinping adopted a more assertive foreign policy, leveraging economic growth, expanding influence and making claims
- Russia under Putin sought to reassert itself as a global power and challenged Western influence, particularly in Ukraine
Challenges to the Liberal Order
- Internal threats like nationalist-populist movements and economic inequality
- External threats like the rise of China, Russia's assertiveness, and other geopolitical challenges
US Politics and Policy
- Obama's "Pivot to Asia": Responding to China's influence in the Asia-Pacific region
- Trump's Nationalist Foreign Policy: A departure from traditional US foreign policy emphasizing US interests over multilateralism. Criticized globalization, questioned NATO, and pulled out of agreements
Conclusion
Numerous factors have influenced shifts in global (dis)orders. The international landscape is dynamic with a rise of new powers and challenges to existing architectures leading to a multipolar system. These shifts raise questions about future international governance structures.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the BRICS countries and their impact on global governance. This quiz covers the main objectives of BRICS, their perception of established institutions, and the characteristics of international political orders. Challenge yourself to see how well you understand the dynamics of multipolar and unipolar systems.