International Organizations by Pease

International Organizations

• Definition: International organizations are formal institutions with states as members, also known as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs).
• Characteristics: IGOs have a special legal status under international law, allowing them to act under international law.
• Examples: UN, NATO, EU, and Arab League.

Theories of International Relations

Realism

• State-centric approach: States are the most important actors in international relations.
• Anarchy: There is no higher authority or world government, leading to a struggle for survival and power.
• Balance of power: A hierarchical ranking of power within the international system.
• Hegemony: A dominant state supports and maintains international organizations as long as they serve its interests.

Liberalism

• Worldview: Strong belief in individual values, limited government, market, and rule of law.
• International relations based on peaceful exchange of goods, services, and ideas between societies.
• Non-state actors (e.g., MNCs and IGOs) are important in international relations.
• International cooperation and conflict are intertwined.

Marxism

• Economic and political inequality: Focus on the role of economic and political inequality in international relations.
• Capitalism: The dominant system in the international arena, driven by profit maximization.
• Classes: Bourgeoisie (owners of production means) and proletariat (workers).
• Core states (developed countries) provide capital and goods, while peripheral states (third-world countries) provide cheap labor and resources.

Feminism

• Gender matters: The experiences of women in war, politics, markets, and class are often overlooked.
• International relations are characterized by conflict, which is rooted in the superior-inferior nature of gender relations.
• Patriarchy: The dominance of men in international relations.
• NGOs are seen as more "feminine" and are often more horizontal in structure, working with IGOs to help victims of world politics.

Constructivism

• Social norms and shared identities: International organizations help shape and spread these norms and identities.
• Rejection of objective reality: Beliefs and interests are socially constructed, shaped by social bonds and identities.

Other Concepts

• Functionalism: Analyzes international organizations in non-political areas, such as economic and social spheres.
• Study of international regimes: Examines other forms of international interactions, including cooperation with or without IGOs.
• Global governance: Focuses on how states and non-state actors define and address global problems in the absence of a world government.
• International law: The formal rules and principles governing relations between states and international organizations.### International Organizations: Nuts and Bolts
• The Congress of Vienna (1815-1822) is often seen as the first modern precursor to a contemporary intergovernmental organization (IGO).
• The League of Nations was the first global IGO with universal membership, established after World War I, with three organs:
  • The League of Nations established the Council of Four, comprising the United States, France, Britain, and Italy. The Council's primary responsibilities included preventing wars, ensuring peaceful conflict resolution, and addressing international crises. The Council's authority was grounded in Article X of the League's Covenant, which granted it the power to intervene in disputes between member states. This provision aimed to promote collective security and maintain world peace.
  • Assembly: a quasi-legislative organ, comprising all League members, with each member allowed up to three representatives.
  • Secretariat: the bureaucracy, responsible for executing policy and mandates.
• The League of Nations had three key principles, later adopted by its successor, the United Nations (UN):
  • Collective security, where international security is directly linked to national security.
  • Norm for peaceful conflict resolution through means such as mediation, negotiation, arbitration, and adjudication.
  • Promoting international cooperation on economic and social grounds.

United Nations (UN)

• Established in 1945, with the aim of creating a multipurpose, universal IGO, like the League of Nations.
• The UN's primary goal is to maintain international peace and security, promote friendly relations, and address economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems.
• The UN is composed of six main organs:
  • General Assembly:
    • Functions: deliberating and considering problems and questions arising under the Charter; initiating studies and making recommendations for promoting political cooperation and progressive development of international law.
    • Based on liberal democratic principles of political equality and majority rule.
  • Security Council:
    • Primary responsibility is maintaining international peace and security.
    • Decisions are binding on member states, which must comply and assist in their implementation.
    • Comprises 15 members: 5 permanent members (the victorious powers of World War II) and 10 non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly.
  • International Court of Justice (ICJ) or World Court:
    • Semi-autonomous within the UN, interpreting the Charter and international law.
    • Comprises 15 judges, with no two judges from the same nationality.
  • Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):
    • Promoting economic and social cooperation among member states, focusing on economic development, human rights, and social welfare.
    • Comprises 54 members elected by the General Assembly.
  • Secretariat:
    • The UN bureaucracy, headed by the Secretary-General, responsible for executing UN tasks and functions.
  • Trusteeship Council:
    • Originally responsible for overseeing the transition of colonies to self-governing territories, but currently has no function.

Principles of the UN

• Sovereign equality of all members
• Members accept voluntary responsibility to fulfill international obligations upon joining
• Peaceful settlement of conflicts
• Members may not threaten or use force in international relations
• The UN may not intervene in domestic jurisdiction of member states

UN Ambitions and Challenges

• Financial problems: the US contributes the most but also has the most arrears
• Protection of personnel: attacks, kidnappings, and murders
• Lack of leadership and representation
• Reforms: addressing tensions between the US and other powerful members, and the North-South conflict

Regional Intergovernmental Organizations

• The European Union (EU) is an example of a regional IGO.### Supranational Organization
• A supranational organization is the highest form of economic, political, and social integration in a modern international organization, consisting of multiple organizations.

European Council (Europese Raad)

• Comprises the heads of state/government of EU member states, providing political leadership for the EU
• Meets twice a year with representatives of other EU institutions to coordinate EU policy with national politics and interests
• Has increasing influence on EU affairs, but most political and military (and some monetary) decisions are still made at the national level

The Council of Ministers (Raad van Ministers)

• Comprises the relevant ministers of the governments of EU member states, serving as the main decision-making body
• Composition varies depending on the subject and members of the Council, representing national governments of the EU
• Decisions are made by weighted average with a qualified majority, but often informally through unanimity

European Commission (Europese Commissie)

• Reports formally to the Council of Ministers, but has significant autonomy
• Comprises 27 commissioners representing the interests of the EU
• Has various forms of power, including the ability to initiate policy proposals, execute EU policy, and implement multilateral EU treaties

European Parliament

• Responsible for overseeing the Commission, but has limited legislative power, mainly advisory and symbolic
• Provides advice to the Council and Commission on proposals and must approve the Commission's overall budget
• Part of the co-decision procedure, which involves multiple stages of proposal, revision, and voting

European Court of Justice (Europees Hof van Justitie)

• Can rule on conflicts based on treaties, ensuring EU policy and national laws are in line with EU treaties
• Comprises 27 judges appointed by national governments
• Individuals and governments can appeal to the European Court of Justice

Ambitions and Challenges of the EU

• EU citizens do not always support EU policy
• Questions about the euro
• National budget deficits
• Debt crisis in Greece, Portugal, Ireland, and Spain, resulting in bailouts
• Steps towards political and military integration since the Maastricht Treaty, including a common foreign and security policy

Realism Theory

• Focuses on power politics and the role of hard power (e.g., military) and soft power (e.g., ideas, wealth, innovation)
• Pessimistic view of the role of international organizations in preventing war
• Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Von Clausewitz are key figures in the development of realist thought

Modern Realism

• States are the primary actors in international relations
• States are unitary and rational actors
• International relations are characterized by conflict and anarchy, leading to a balance of power and the pursuit of self-interest