Intermediate Economics: Microeconomics Concepts

General Overview

• Second year economics typically covers intermediate concepts in microeconomics and macroeconomics.
• Focus on building analytical skills and applying economic theories to real-world situations.

Microeconomics

1. Consumer Theory

   • Utility maximization: Understanding preferences, budget constraints, and choice.
   • Indifference curves and budget lines.

2. Production and Costs

   • Short-run vs. long-run production functions.
   • Concepts of marginal product and diminishing returns.
   • Cost curves: fixed, variable, average, and marginal costs.

3. Market Structures

   • Perfect competition: Characteristics and equilibrium.
   • Monopoly: Pricing power, price discrimination, and welfare implications.
   • Oligopoly: Game theory, collusion, and kinked demand curves.

4. Market Failures

   • Externalities: Positive and negative effects on third parties.
   • Public goods: Non-excludability and non-rivalry.
   • Asymmetric information: Adverse selection and moral hazard.

Macroeconomics

1. National Income Accounting

   • Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Measurement and components (C+I+G+NX).
   • Nominal vs. real GDP and GDP per capita.

2. Economic Growth

   • Factors contributing to economic growth: Capital accumulation, labor force growth, technological advancement.
   • The Solow growth model and convergence theory.

3. Business Cycles

   • Phases: Expansion, peak, contraction, and trough.
   • Indicators: Leading, lagging, and coincident indicators.

4. Monetary and Fiscal Policy

   • Tools of monetary policy: Interest rates, reserve requirements, open market operations.
   • Fiscal policy: Government spending and taxation, budget deficits, and public debt.

5. Inflation and Unemployment

   • Types of inflation: Demand-pull and cost-push inflation.
   • Phillips curve: Relationship between inflation and unemployment.

Key Theories and Models

• Supply and Demand Analysis: Understanding equilibrium price and quantity.
• Keynesian Economics: Emphasis on aggregate demand and active government intervention.
• Classical Economics: Belief in self-regulating markets and limited government role.

Important Concepts

• Opportunity cost: The cost of foregone alternatives when making choices.
• Comparative advantage: Basis for trade and specialization among countries.
• Elasticity: Measure of responsiveness in supply and demand to price changes.

Analytical Skills

• Graphical analysis: Ability to interpret and construct economic graphs.
• Critical thinking: Evaluating economic policies and their impacts.
• Data analysis: Use of statistics in economic research and decision-making.

General Overview

• Second-year economics delves into intermediate microeconomics and macroeconomics, enhancing analytical skills.
• Emphasis on applying economic theories to real-world scenarios.

Microeconomics

• Consumer Theory

  • Utility maximization involves analyzing consumer preferences, budget constraints, and decision-making.
  • Indifference curves represent various combinations of goods providing equal satisfaction while budget lines show attainable combinations given income.

• Production and Costs

  • Differentiates between short-run and long-run production functions, impacting decision-making.
  • Key concepts include marginal product, which indicates the additional output from added input, and diminishing returns, where output increases at a decreasing rate.
  • Cost curves categorize fixed, variable, average, and marginal costs, critical for understanding profitability.

• Market Structures

  • Perfect competition characterized by many sellers, homogenous products, and no barriers to entry leading to market equilibrium.
  • Monopoly features a single seller with significant pricing power, allowing for price discrimination impacting welfare.
  • Oligopoly involves few sellers, where game theory and collusion can influence market dynamics and kinked demand curves illustrate price rigidity.

• Market Failures

  • Externalities describe the impact of an activity on third parties, highlighting both positive and negative outcomes.
  • Public goods are characterized by non-excludability and non-rivalry, which create challenges in funding.
  • Asymmetric information leads to adverse selection and moral hazard, complicating market transactions.

Macroeconomics

• National Income Accounting

  • Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measured by consumption (C), investment (I), government spending (G), and net exports (NX).
  • Distinction between nominal and real GDP, with real GDP adjusted for inflation, and GDP per capita as an indicator of economic performance.

• Economic Growth

  • Factors influencing growth include capital accumulation, labor force expansion, and technological advancements.
  • The Solow growth model and convergence theory explain long-term economic growth patterns.

• Business Cycles

  • Business cycles consist of expansion, peak, contraction, and trough phases, identifying fluctuations in economic activity.
  • Indicators for phase identification include leading (predictive), lagging (historical), and coincident indicators.

• Monetary and Fiscal Policy

  • Monetary policy tools include interest rates, reserve requirements, and open market operations used to regulate money supply.
  • Fiscal policy encompasses government spending, taxation, budget deficits, and public debt management.

• Inflation and Unemployment

  • Inflation types include demand-pull (driven by consumer demand) and cost-push (due to rising costs of production).
  • The Phillips curve illustrates the inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment rates.

Key Theories and Models

• Supply and Demand Analysis focuses on determining equilibrium price and quantity in markets.
• Keynesian Economics advocates for active government intervention to foster aggregate demand and stabilize the economy.
• Classical Economics posits that markets self-regulate and minimizes the role of government involvement.

Important Concepts

• Opportunity cost reflects the value of the next best alternative that is given up when making decisions.
• Comparative advantage underlines the benefits of trade and specialization based on differing efficiencies among countries.
• Elasticity is a crucial measure assessing how supply and demand respond to price fluctuations.

Analytical Skills

• Graphical analysis skills are vital for interpreting economic data and constructing various economic models.
• Critical thinking is essential for assessing economic policies and understanding their impacts and implications.
• Data analysis employs statistics to inform economic research and support decision-making processes.