Infant Attachment and Exploration

Infant Exploration and Attachment

• Infants explore their environment, frequently stopping to look around and engage in physical activity.
• They check in with their mothers and may seek reassurance by returning to them.
• A secure base is created when an infant returns to the mother for comfort.

John Bowlby's Attachment Theory

• Bowlby developed a framework to understand attachments, which are formed through a series of phases.

Phases of Attachment

• Internal orienting: Infants cannot distinguish between individuals during the first few months.
• Preference formation: Infants begin to favor specific individuals around 5-7 months, showing increased smiling and comfort-seeking.
• Proximity maintenance: Infants actively stay close to their caregivers, crawling to them or protesting if separated. This phase typically emerges between 7-9 months and is accompanied by the development of stranger anxiety.
• Goal corrected partnership: A more reciprocal relationship develops around 3 years old where children accommodate their caregivers' needs (according to Bowlby).
• Abstract relationship: Based on abstract concepts like trust and affection, children develop an internal working model.

Ainsworth's Research

• Ainsworth observed that infants show a preference for their mothers, seeking comfort from them and displaying distress when separated.
• They experience joy upon reunion, highlighting the role of mothers as secure bases.

Schaffer and Emerson's Study

• Babies showed distress on separation, suggesting the formation of attachments.
• Multiple attachments rose from 29% to 87% within 18 months, indicating the gradual expansion of attachments.
• A third of infants formed stronger attachments to figures other than their mothers.
• Responsiveness was considered a primary factor in attachment formation.

Cross-Cultural Variations

• While mothers are often the primary caregivers, in many societies, other individuals like grandparents, older siblings, or nurses play significant roles in childcare.
• A survey of 186 non-industrial societies revealed that mothers are the “almost exclusive” caretaker in infancy in only 5 societies. Other individuals significantly contribute to caregiving in 40% of societies, with significant roles in early childhood seen in 80% of societies.

The Strange Situation Procedure

• Ainsworth developed a laboratory-based assessment method called the Strange Situation to evaluate attachment styles.
• The procedure involves 7 stages:
  • Initial exploration
  • Introduction of a stranger
  • Separation
  • Reunion
  • Infant alone
  • Stranger interaction
  • Final reunion

Types of Attachment

• Type A (Avoidant): Infants avoid interaction with their mothers upon reunion, displaying little distress during separation.
• Type B (Secure): Infants seek proximity to their mothers, especially during reunion, showing distress during separation.
• Type C (Ambivalent/Resistant): Infants exhibit resistance to proximity during reunion, seeking close proximity while simultaneously rejecting it.
• Type D (Disorganized): Infants display inconsistent and bizarre responses to separation and reunion, lacking a clear attachment pattern. This type was later added to the classification.

Critiques of Attachment Theory

• Type D was incorporated into the typology before fully established.
• Alternatives to the Strange Situation, such as the Adult Attachment Projective (AAP) test, have been proposed.
• Attachment should be understood as a relational phenomenon rather than solely individual characteristics.
• Infants can develop attachments to individuals other than their mothers, such as fathers.
• The implications of insecure attachments for later development are not always negative.

Research on the Long-Term Effects of Attachment

• Oppenheim et al. (1988): Secure attachment at 12 months predicted positive socio-emotional outcomes, including curiosity, problem-solving skills, social confidence, empathy, and independence.
• Lewis et al. (1984): Secure attachment was linked to fewer behavioral problems in boys by age 6.
• Kochanska (2001): Longitudinal study showed changes in emotional regulation across different attachment styles.
• McCartney et al. (2004): The Strange Situation did not predict behavior problems in a large-scale study, suggesting that other factors might influence these outcomes.

Cross-Cultural Findings

• Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg: Conducted a meta-analysis of Strange Situation studies across 32 cultures, revealing considerable variation in attachment styles.
• Takahashi: Japanese infants showed excessive stress on separation, suggesting cultural differences in how mothers respond to separation.
• Dogon People: A study on the Dogon people in Africa showed a high prevalence of secure attachment and a low prevalence of avoidant attachment.

Genetics and Attachment

• Genetics plays a role in attachment, influencing temperament and disposition to certain attachment styles.
• However, social-cultural influences also play a significant role.