Indian History Terms

Agrahara

• Land or village gifted by a king

Alvars

• Early medieval South India poets
• Vaishnava saints

Apabhramsha

• Prakrit language development stage
• Up to the end of the 1st millennium CE

Aranyakas

• Literally "forest books"
• Part of the Vedic corpus

Abwab

• Extra legal charges by landlords

Akhra

• Gymnasium

Amil

• Revenue official

Amla

• Zamindari official

Ajlaf

• Muslim commoners

Atrap

• Muslim commoners, same as ajlaf

Azad Dastas

• Guerrilla bands

Amils

• Revenue officers

Arz-I-Mamalik

• Minister in charge of the army

Ahl-I-Qalam

• Reporter

Akam

• Sangam love poems

Amphorae

• Roman pottery jars
• Large oval body
• Narrow cylindrical neck
• Two handles

Antarala

• Vestibule or antechamber of a temple

Anvikshiki

• Literally "looking at"
• Logical reasoning

Araghatta

• Persian wheel

Ardha-Magadhi

• Eastern dialect of Prakrit
• Earliest Jaina texts are written in this dialect

Ardhamandapa

• Hall preceding a temple's sanctum

Arhat

• Person who has attained enlightenment

Ariya-sachchani

• Four Noble Truths related to suffering
• Important part of Buddha's teaching

Astika schools

• Philosophical schools that accepted the Vedas' authority
• Comprising the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy

Ayyavole

• Powerful merchant guild
• Early medieval South India

Bhikkhu Pali

• (Sanskrit Bhikshu)
• Literally "one who lives by begging alms"
• Buddhist monk

Brahmacharya

• Stage of celibate studenthood
• Ashrama scheme

Brahmadeya

• Land gifted to Brahmanas
• Generally by kings

Baqqal

• Trader, grain-dealer

Batai

• Division of crop between cultivator and landlord or the government
• Payments may be in kind or cash

Barid

• Intelligence officer appointed by the state

Banjar

• Waste and fallow land

Banjara

• Itinerant tribe

Bahas

• Muslim religious meeting

Bakasht

• Land where permanent tenancies have converted into short-term ones

Bodhisattva

• A future Buddha

Boustrephedon style

• Writing style where consecutive lines start in opposite directions

Brahmadeya

• Land gifted to Brahmanas
• Generally by kings

Burin

• Small stone tool on a blade
• With a "screw-driver" edge

Chakri

• Office job

Cairn stone circle

• Megalithic burial
• Marked by a stone circle

Chaitya

• Buddhist shrine

Charana

• School of Vedic study

Charvaka

• Atheistic, materialist philosophical school
• Also known as Lokayata

Cowries

• Marine shells used as currency in many parts of the world
• In India, cowries from the Maldive islands were used from ancient times until the colonial period

Chaouth or Chauthai

• One-fourth of the land revenue
• Originally a zamindari charge in Gujrat demanded by Shivaji as a war expense

Charai

• Tax on cattle

Dadan

• Advance

Dadani

• Merchants procured goods by paying advances to primary producers

Dalam

• Revolutionary units

Dalwai

• Prime minister of the Mysore state

Dastak

• Permits issued by local East India Company councils
• Certifying goods for tax exemption

Deshpande

• Revenue collector

Deshmukh

• Revenue officer

Dikhu

• Foreigner, term used by tribals (Santhals) to identify outsiders

Dakshinapatha

• Great southern trade route

Dana

• Ritual giving

Darshana

• Literally, "view"
• Philosophy

Dhamma

• Pali word (Sanskrit, dharma) referring to the ideal conduct of an individual living in society

Dhamma Chakka-pavattana

• Pali, "turning the wheel of dhamma"
• Buddha's first sermon in the deer park near Benaras

Dhamma-mahamatas

• New cadre of officials created by Ashoka to propagate dhamma

Dvija

• Literally "twice born"
• Entitled to the upanayana ceremony
• Considered analogous to a second birth
• Upper three varnas: Brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas

Dagh System

• System of branding horses and animals

Dame

• Copper coin considered as 1/40th the silver rupee for official purposes

Dastur-at-Amal

• Rule book

Dhimmi

• Non-Muslim client or subject

Darul Mulk

• Capital

Diwan

• Function of finance

Diwan-I-Arz

• Ministry of military affairs

Diwan-I-Insha

• Ministry of royal correspondence

Diwan-I-Kul Wazir

• Chief imperial fiscal minister

Daroga

• Minor officer in local charge

Diwan-I-Risalat

• Religious affairs

Diwan-I-Wizarat

• Department of finance

Faujdar

• In charge of Sarkar

Fitna

• Sedition

Fituris

• Tradition of tribal rebellion

Four Noble Truths(Ariya-sachchani)

• Part of Buddha's teaching
• There is suffering
• It has a cause
• It can be eliminated
• Way to eliminate it is to follow the Eight-fold Path

Gumashta

• An agent or representative

Garbha-Griha

• Inner sanctum of a temple
• Where the main deity's image is placed and worshiped

Grihastha

• The householder stage
• Ashrama scheme

Ghatwali

• Service tenure for village watchmen

Giras

• Customary dues

Gomustah

• Indian agent of the East India Company

Gahapati

• Pali for Sanskrit grihapati
• A wealthy property owner

Gana

• Word with many meanings, including oligarchy

Garbha-griha

• Inner sanctum of a temple
• Where the image of the main deity is placed and worshipped

Grantha script

• A South Indian script used for writing Sanskrit

Ganj

• Grain Market

Hun

• Gold Coin

Hamam

• Room for bathing with hot and cold water

Hundi

• Bill of Exchange

Hundikas

• Bills of exchange used by traders
• Early medieval India

Ibadat Khana

• House of Worship

Iqta

• Land-grant system adopted by Ala-Ud-Din Khilji
• Granted to officers as reward for services rendered

Khalisa

• Land revenue directly for imperial treasury

Khots

• Village head

Khums

• Tax on plunder

Khutba

• Sermon made in Friday mosque

Janapada

• Literally, "foothold of a tribe"
• A territorial state
• Region consisting of urban and rural settlements, along with its inhabitants

Jatakas

• One of the 15 books of the Khuddaka Nikaya
• Containing stories of the Buddha's previous births

Jati

• Word with several meanings, including caste, birth, and type

Jina

• Literally "victor"
• A Jaina saint

Jama

• Estimated land revenue income

Janmi

• Holder of janmam tenure

Jatha(s)

• Sikh bands of warriors

Jatra

• Rural theatrical performance

Jotedar(s)

• Intermediary tenure holders

Jamabandi

• Settlement of the amount of revenue assessed upon an estate or district

Jarib

• Measurement, land measurement, or survey

Jihat

• Extra cesses

Jizya

• In Delhi Sultanate, any tax that is not Kharai (land tax)
• In Shariati, a personal and yearly tax on non-Muslims

Kankut

• Estimation of land revenue

Karori

• Revenue officer

Khirai

• Land Revenue

Kula

• Word with a range of meanings
• Including an extended patrilineal family

Kanamdar/Kanak

• Holder of kanam tenure

Khanazad

• Hereditary Muslim aristocrats in the Mughal court

Khudkasht(s)

• Peasants with occupancy rights

Khutba

• Friday prayers in the mosque

Kulin

• Some castes among Brahmans and Kayasthas of Bengal
• Considered to be the purest

Kani Rights

• Rights over land
• Early medieval South India
• Associated with certain duties and obligations

Kara-shasanas

• Tax-paying agraharas

Kottam

• Settlement clusters in the Pallava kingdom
• Similar to the nadus kraya-shasana: a secular land-sale deed

Kshatra

• Secular power

Kshatrapa

• Viceroy or subordinate ruler of the Scytho-Parthians
• Title assumed by kings of the Kshaharata and Kardamaka dynasties

Linga

• Phallic Emblem Of The God Shiva

Lokayata

• Atheistic materialist philosophical school
• Also known as Charvaka

Madad-I-Massh

• Tax-free grants of land

Malfuzat

• Saying of Sufi saint

Mamluk

• White slaves

Mir Bhakshi

• Military Department

Mir Saman

• Supply Department

Muquaddam

• Village Head

Mahal

• Group of land regarded as a unit for land revenue purposes

Mansab

• Military rank conferred by the Mughal emperor

Mauza

• Revenue term for village

Mokasa

• Grant of land for military service
• Rent-free land

Madhayamaka

• Major Mahayana school founded by Nagarjuna
• In which the idea of shunyata (emptiness) is of great importance

Mahajanapadas

• Great states of the 6th century BCE

Mahakshatrapa

• Viceroy, subordinate ruler
• Title assumed by some kings of the Kshaharata and Kardamaka dynasties

Mahayana

• Literally "the greater vehicle"
• A set of Buddhist schools

Mandapika

• Local exchange center
• In between small periodic markets and larger trade centers

Manigramam

• Powerful merchant guild
• Early Medieval South India

Matha

• Monastery

Moksha

• Liberation from the cycle of birth and death

Masand

• Deputy of a Sikh guru

Mulgujar

• Landholding primary zamindar

Meli(s)

• Anti-feudal demonstrations

Mirasidar

• Land rights in South India

Misls

• Combinations of Sikh sardars based on kinship ties

Mofussil

• Small town or subdivisional town

Muktiyar Namah

• Power of attorney

Mushaira

• Public recital

Muttadars

• Estate holders

Menhir

• Megalithic burial
• Marked by a single, large, standing stone

Mithuna figures

• Amorous couples in sculptural decoration of shrines

Mukhamandapa

• Porch of a temple

Nabud

• Remission of land revenue on account of natural disasters

Nagara Style

• Northern style of temple architecture
• Marked by a curvilinear Shikara (tower)

Nagarams

• Market or commercial centers
• Early Medieval South India

Nagarattar

• Organization of the Nagaram

Northern Black Polished Ware (Nbp Or Nbpw)

• Distinctive type of fine pottery with a glossy surface
• Made and used between c. 700 and 200 BCE

Nakdi Mansabdar

• Mansabdars paid in cash

Nankar

• Revenue-free land

Nadu:

• Locality of settlements
• Early medieval South India

Nagara style

• Northern style of temple architecture, marked by a curvilinear shikara (tower)

Nagarakkani

• Land owned and managed by the nagaram

Nalayira Divya Prabandham

• Work by Nathamuni containing Alvar saints' hymns

Nattar

• Leading men of the Nadu in early medieval South India

Nibbana

• Term used in Buddhist tradition for liberation from the cycle of birth and death

Nitishastra

• Sanskrit works on statecraft

Niyoga

• Levirate
• Ancient custom of a widow cohabiting with her brother-in-law to produce sons

Nyaya

• Philosophical school of logic and epistemology

Ochre Coloured Pottery (Ocp)

• Protohistoric pottery type found at several sites in the Doab

Paibaqi

• Land reserved for allotment in jagir

Polai

• Continuously cultivated land

Painted Grey Ware (Pgw)

• Distinctive fine, grey pottery with black designs
• Made and used in North India between c. 1000 and 500 BCE

Paramitas

• Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path
• A Mahayana idea

Pariharas

• Exemptions and privileges granted to donees in royal land grants

Pahikasht(s)

• Vagrant Peasants

Patadar(s)

• Landowners

Patil

• Village headmen

Podu

• Tribal term for shifting cultivation
• Prevalent in the Andhra region

Pali

• Ancient Indo-European language
• Language of the Theravada school canon

Paribbajaka

• Pali, literally "wanderer," renunciant

Patichcha-samuppada

• Pali, law of dependent origination
• Part of the Buddha's teaching

Periyapuranam

• 12th century work containing hagiographies of the Nayanmar saints

Prakrit

• Ancient Indo-European language
• Various dialects, such as Maharashtri, Shauraseni, and Magadhi

Pramanas

• Grounds of knowledge

Prashasti

• Panegyric

Pravara

• Names of ancestral rishis, connected with the gotra system of the Brahmanas

Puram

• War poems of the Sangam corpus

Pargana

• Approximately a hundred villages

Qanungos

• Caretaker of revenue records

Risalas

• Units of Haidar Ali's army of Mysore

Sabha

• Assembly of Brahmins during the Chola Period

Sadr Us Sadur

• Ecclesiastical affairs

Sarkar

• Administrative unit of Paragana

Shaikhadas

• Indian Muslim Nobility

Sharia

• Muslim Law

Shiqdar

• Head of administrative unit

Sandhar

• Loans

Subas

• Provinces

Sabha

• A tribal assembly in Vedic texts
• Also an assembly of a Brahmana village in early medieval South India

Samana

• Pali word (Sanskrit Shramana)
• Literally, one who strives, a renunciant

Samanta

• Subordinate ruler
• Feudatory

Samhita

• Collection of hymns associated with the Vedas

Samskaras

• Literally 'preparation', 'arrangement'
• Rituals marking important life stages

Sandhara

• Temple style with an enclosed passage for circumambulation

Shruti

• Literally 'that which has been heard', the Veda

Shvetambara

• white-clad
• Jaina sect

Smriti

• A category of Sanskrit texts including the Vedangas, Puranas, Epics, and Dharmashastras

Stri-Dhana

• Women's Wealth
• Various types of moveable property, passed to women during their lifetime, from mother to daughter

Syadavada

• Doctrine of Maybe, the Jain doctrine of the partial nature of all statements about reality

Sahajdharis

• Non-khalsa Sikhs

Sahukar

• Moneylender

Sajjad Nishins

• Custodians of Sufi shrines

Sanad

• Mughal imperial order

Saranjam

• Transferable land rights

Sawar

• Numerical rank for horsemen Mughal commanders needed to maintain

Sharif

• Respectable Muslim

Sud

• Tribal term for foreigners in the Choto Nagpur region

Swaraj Ziladish

• Independent district magistrate

Samkhya

• Ancient philosophical school views the world as purusha (spiritual principle) and prakriti (matter)

Sangam literature

• Exists in old Tamil and comprises the earliest parts of the Ettutokai, Pattuppattu, and Tolkappiyam

Sangha

• Word with meanings including oligarchy, the Buddhist monastic order, and the Jaina monastic order

Sannyasa

• Complete renunciation stage in the ashrama scheme

Sapindas

• People related to each other
• Important category in Dharmashastra discussions on marriage, inheritance, and purity rules

Saptanga Rajya

• Seven-limbed state
• The Arthashastra concept of the state

Setthi

• Pali (Sanskrit sreshthin)
• High-level businessman associated with trade and money-lending

Shakha

• Recension of a Veda

Siddhamatrika

• Ancient script known from the 6th century CE
• Also known as Kutila

Tevaram

• Collection of hymns
• Part of the Canon of South Indian Shaiva Bhakti

Tipitaka Pali

• Literally 'the Three Baskets' or 'three Collections'
• Buddhist Canonical Texts
• The Pali Tipitaka Is The Canon Of The Theravada School

Triratna

• Literally, 'the Three Gems'
• In Jainism, Refers To The Triple Path Of Right Faith, Knowledge, And Conduct
• Upanishads Philosophical Texts That Are Part Of The Vedic Corpus

Tankha Jagir

• Hereditary possessions of Rajput chiefs under the Mughals

Tufan Dal (s)

• Revolutionary village units

Taniyur

• Special status given to certain brahmadeyas in early medieval South India
• Making them independent of the nadu wherein they were located

Terra Sigilatta

• Molded, decorated wares, wheel-made
• In Italy or imitations thereof
• Earlier referred to as Arretine Ware

Tipitaka

• Pali, literally 'the three baskets' or 'three collections'
• Buddhist canonical texts
• Pali Tipitaka is the canon of the Theravada school

Tirthankara

• Literally, 'Ford Builder'
• A Jaina saint

Tirumurai

• Canon of South Indian Shaiva bhakti

Tiruttondar-Tiruvantai

• Work by Nambi Andar Nambi
• Gives short hagiography of the Nayanmar saints

Tiruttondar-Tokai

• Work by Sundarar
• Lists 62 Nayanmar saints

Torana

• Gateway of a shrine

Transepts

• Vertical stone slabs that divide a megalithic chamber tomb into sections

Tankah

• Silver Coin

Ulama

• Muslim priests

Ummah

• Community based on allegiance to the common Islamic faith

Utar

• Forced Labour

Ur

• Non-brahmadeya village of South India
• Corporate assembly of such a village

Upasaka

• Male Lay Follower Of The Buddha's Teaching

Vanaprastha

• Stage Of Partial Renunciation ashrama scheme

Varahathe

• Boar Incarnation Of The God Vishnu

Varna

• Literally Colour
• The Concept Of Four Hereditary Classes— Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, And Shudra

Varna-Samkara

• The Mixture Of Varnas Due To Inter-Varna Unions

Vassavasa

• The Monsoon Retreat Of Buddhist Monks

Vesara

• Style Of Temple Architecture
• A blend of elements associated with the Nagara and Dravida Styles
• Also Known as Karnata-Dravida

Vihara

• Buddhist monastery

Vimana

• Sanctum of a temple and its superstructure

Viragal

• Word for a hero stone in the Tamil Nadu Area

Vishnuism

• Vaishnavism
• The worship of Vishnu as a supreme god

Vatan

• Hereditary land rights

Vaisheshika

• Philosophical school of pluralistic realism

Varaha

• The boar incarnation of God Vishnu

Vatteluttu

• Ancient South Indian script used for writing Tamil

Velir

• Chieftains of South India

Vellala/vellalar

• Cultivating groups of South India

Vellanvagai

• Non-brahmadeya villages of early medieval South India
• Same as ur

Vendar

• The three crowned kings of early historical South India
• The Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas

Vihara

• Buddhist monastery

Waqf

• Grants to Muslim religious establishments

Watandar

• Desais and Deshmukh

Wilayat

• Spiritual territory of a Sufi

Yajamana

• The person for whom
• The yajna (sacrifice) is performed and who bears its expenses

Yakshas

• Deities associated with water, fertility, trees, forests, and the wilderness

Yakshis

• Female deities associated with fertility, consorts of Yakshas

Yavana

• Greeks, foreigners from the West

Yogachara

• Major Mahayana school
• Importance to meditation
• Attaining the highest goal

Yupa

• Sacrificial post

Yajamana

• Person For Whom The Yajna (Sacrifice) Is Performed And Borne Its Expenses

Yajna

• Sacrifice

Yakshas

• Delites Associated With Water, Fertility, Trees, Forests, And The Wilderness

Yakshis

• Female Deities Associated With Fertility, Consorts Of Yakshas

Zabt

• Revenue Based On Land Measurement

Zawabit

• Non-Shariat State Laws

Zimmis

• Protected Non-Muslims

Zenana

• The women's quarter in the inner part of the house

Zillah

• Administrative District