123 Questions
What was the significance of James Prinsep's deciphering of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts in the 1830s?
It provided a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history
What was the primary focus of scholars in the early decades of the twentieth century?
Reconstructing the lineages of major dynasties that had ruled the subcontinent
What was the significance of the sixth century BCE in early Indian history?
It was an era associated with early states, cities, and the growing use of iron and coinage
What was the outcome of scholars' investigations into the context of political history?
They realised that while there were links, these were not always simple or direct
What was the name of the king referred to in the inscriptions deciphered by James Prinsep?
Piyadassi
What was the significance of the deciphering of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts for the study of Indian epigraphy?
It provided a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history
What is the name of the region where agriculture was especially productive, which contributed to the rise of Magadha?
Present-day Bihar
Which of the following was NOT a means of acquiring wealth recognized by the mahajanapadas?
Trade with foreign countries
What was the name of the capital city of Magadha before it was shifted to Pataliputra?
Rajagaha
Which of the following was a characteristic of the ganas or sanghas?
They were oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men
What was the name of the famous ruler of early India who conquered Kalinga?
Asoka
Which of the following was a source used by historians to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire?
The Arthashastra
What was the name of the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya?
Megasthenes
Which of the following was NOT a characteristic of the mahajanapadas?
They were democratic states
What was the name of the text that laid down norms for rulers, including expectations that they should be Kshatriyas?
The Dharmasutras
Which of the following was a resource that contributed to the rise of Magadha?
All of the above
What was the possible reason for Prabhavati having access to land despite being a woman?
She was exceptional as a queen
What did the inscription indicate about rural populations?
They included Brahmanas and peasants
What was the primary mode of transportation used by peddlers?
On foot
What is the debate among historians about land grants?
Whether land grants were part of a strategy to extend agriculture to new areas or a sign of weakening political power
What was the primary commodity in high demand in the Roman Empire?
Pepper
What was the location of cities like Pataliputra?
Along riverine routes
What was the significance of punch-marked coins?
They facilitated exchanges across the subcontinent
Which ruling dynasty issued the largest hoards of gold coins?
Kushanas
What were the inscriptions found in cities like Mathura?
Short votive inscriptions mentioning the donor's name and occupation
What was the significance of the Yaudheyas' copper coins?
They indicated the Yaudheyas' interest in economic exchanges
What did the votive inscriptions in cities like Mathura indicate?
The occupations of various people including washing folk, weavers, and merchants
What was the function of guilds or shrenis?
To regulate production and market finished products
What is one possible explanation for the decline of gold coin finds from the sixth century CE onwards?
The collapse of the Western Roman Empire
What is the significance of Brahmi script in Indian epigraphy?
Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived from it
What was the material used to make fine pottery bowls and dishes?
Northern Black Polished Ware
What was the process used by European scholars to decipher Brahmi?
Working backwards from Devanagari and Bengali manuscripts
What was the significance of the sixth century BCE in early Indian history?
It was the time of the emergence of new cities and towns
What was the significance of coins issued by tribal republics?
They indicated the interest of tribal republics in economic exchanges
What was the extent of trade in the subcontinent and beyond?
Overland into Central Asia and beyond, and overseas to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China
What does the widespread use of gold coins indicate?
The enormous value of transactions
What was unique about Asoka's method of communication with his subjects and officials?
He inscribed his messages on stone surfaces
What was the main content of Asoka's inscriptions on rocks and pillars?
The principles of dhamma
What was the likely effect of the empire's vast geographical extent on its administrative system?
It made administrative control strongest in areas around the capital and provincial centres
What was the significance of Taxila and Ujjayini in the empire's administrative system?
They were situated on important long-distance trade routes
What was the role of the second subcommittee mentioned by Megasthenes?
Arranging for provisions and transport
What was the primary goal of Asoka's propagation of dhamma?
To ensure the well-being of people in this world and the next
What was the significance of the Mauryan Empire in the context of Indian history?
It was a major landmark in the reconstruction of early Indian history
What was the duration of the Mauryan Empire?
Around 150 years
Why did nationalist leaders in the 20th century regard Asoka as an inspiring figure?
Because of his message of dhamma on his inscriptions
What was the role of the dhamma mahamatta in the Mauryan Empire?
To spread the message of dhamma
What is a characteristic of the new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and further south?
They were stable and prosperous
What was an important source of revenue for many chiefs and kings?
Long-distance trade
What title did some Kushana rulers adopt, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers?
Devaputra
What were the powerful men who maintained themselves through local resources including control over land?
Samantas
What literary work, composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, provides information about the Gupta rulers?
The Prayaga Prashasti
What type of stories were found in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra?
Popular oral tales
What language were the Jatakas written in?
Pali
What is the name of the ancient Tamil country that included parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in addition to Tamil Nadu?
Tamilakam
Who is the court poet of Samudragupta, who composed the Prayaga Prashasti?
Harishena
What is the name of the story from the Jatakas that describes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king?
The Gandatindu Jataka
What facilitated the decipherment of Kharosthi script?
Finds of coins of Indo-Greek kings
What was the title often translated as “beloved of the gods” adopted by Asoka?
Devanampiya
What do historians need to constantly assess when analyzing inscriptions?
The statements made in the inscription for their truth value
What is a challenge in understanding the meaning of inscriptions?
The exact meaning of words may be specific to a particular place or time
What is a limitation of epigraphy?
Letters are sometimes very faintly engraved
What is the significance of James Prinsep's deciphering of Asokan Brahmi in 1838?
It enabled the reading of longer inscriptions in Prakrit
What was the significance of finds of coins of Indo-Greek kings in deciphering Kharosthi script?
They contained the names of kings written in both Greek and Kharosthi scripts
What do epigraphists sometimes add to make the meaning of sentences clear?
Words within brackets
Why is it not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions?
Some words may be specific to a particular place or time
What is a problem that historians face when analyzing inscriptions?
Determining whether the orders of the king were followed
What was the reason for people abandoning their villages and going to live in the forest?
Because of the high taxes demanded by the king
What was the advantage of the iron-tipped ploughshare?
It increased agricultural productivity
What was the term used in Pali texts to designate landholders and village headmen?
Gahapati
What was the purpose of recording grants of land in inscriptions?
To give a record of the transaction to the land recipients
What was the benefit of the strategy of transplantation in paddy production?
It resulted in back-breaking work for the producer
Why were kings frequently disliked by their subjects?
Because they demanded high taxes
What was the difference between the lifestyles of the gahapati and the uzhavar?
The gahapati were large landholders
What was the significance of the copper plates given to those who received land grants?
They recorded land grants
What was the effect of the shift to plough agriculture?
It increased agricultural productivity
What was the outcome of the growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture?
Large landholders and village headmen emerged as powerful figures
What is the primary limitation of inscriptions as a historical source?
They only focus on grand, unique events
What can be inferred about the content of inscriptions?
They reflect the perspective of the person(s) who commissioned them
Why do inscriptions need to be juxtaposed with other perspectives?
To gain a more complete understanding of historical events
What is likely to be absent from inscriptions?
Information about daily life and agricultural practices
What is the likely proportion of inscriptions that have survived to the present day?
A small fraction
What was one of the developments that emerged in central and south India from the first millennium BCE?
The making of elaborate stone structures known as megaliths
What was a key feature of agricultural production that underlay the emergence of early states and kingdoms?
The organization of agricultural production in new ways
What is one of the sources that historians use to understand the developments of the past?
Inscriptions and texts
In which period did the composition of the Rigveda take place?
Following the end of the Harappan civilization
What was a characteristic of the settlements that emerged in many parts of the subcontinent?
They were based on agriculture
What was a consequence of the developments that took place in the subcontinent over 1,500 years?
The emergence of new towns throughout the subcontinent
Which of the following items was NOT mentioned as being exported from the market-towns?
Pomegranates
What was the king's arrangement for disposing of affairs and receiving regular reports?
Pativedakas would report to him at all times and in all places
What was the consequence of the king's conquest of the Kalingas?
One hundred and fifty thousand men were deported, and many more died
What was the exemption granted to the village, according to the charter?
All of the above
What was the likely source of the precious and semi-precious stones mentioned in the Periplus?
Bead-making industries in Kodumanal and other sites
What was the king's attitude towards his conquest of the Kalingas?
He was devoted to an intense study of Dhamma and repentant for the suffering caused
What is the primary function of a chief in a chiefdom society?
Performing special rituals and arbitrating disputes
What is the significance of transplantation in paddy cultivation?
It ensures a higher ratio of sapling survival and higher yields
What was the status of a gahapati in ancient Indian society?
The owner, master, or head of a household
What was the history of Pataliputra?
It began as a small village and became the capital of the Mauryan Empire
What is the significance of the image with a Prakrit inscription from Mathura?
It is a record of a gift made to a religious institution
What is the subject of study in numismatics?
The study of coins, including their visual elements and metallurgical analysis
What is the significance of the Arthashastra in understanding administrative and military organization?
It lays down minute details of administrative and military organization
What is the likely resource required to maintain a large army, according to Greek sources?
A significant amount of land and resources
What is the significance of the excerpt from the Silappadikaram?
It provides a glimpse into the lives of people in ancient Indian cities
What is the significance of agrahara land grants?
They were granted to Brahmanas, who were exempted from paying land revenue
What was the purpose of the Sudarshana lake, according to the inscription of Rudradaman?
Irrigation of the surrounding areas
What is the significance of the Manusmrti in the context of early Indian history?
It is a legal text that advises kings on governance
What is the primary description of the settlement on the outskirts of a forest in the Vindhyas, according to the Harshacharita?
A rural settlement with a focus on agriculture and forest produce
What is the significance of the Prabhavati Gupta inscription in the context of early Indian history?
It is a donation of a village to an Acharya
What is the purpose of the concealed boundary markers mentioned in the Manusmrti?
To prevent controversies over land ownership
What is the significance of the Prayaga Prashasti in the context of early Indian history?
It is an inscription that records the achievements of Samudragupta
What is the description of the landscape in the Vindhyas, according to the Harshacharita?
A dense forest with few clear spaces
What is the significance of the Gupta dynasty in the context of the Sudarshana lake?
They repaired the lake after it was damaged by a storm
What is the description of the village wives mentioned in the Harshacharita?
They were hastening to neighbouring villages to sell forest produce
What is the significance of the Sanskrit inscription on the rock in the context of the Sudarshana lake?
It records the constructions and repairs of the Sudarshana lake
What percentage of inscriptions have survived to the present day?
Less than 1%
What is the name of the script used in most Prakrit inscriptions?
Brahmi
What was the significance of the conquest of Kalinga by Asoka?
It led to Asoka's conversion to Buddhism
What was the primary occupation of the officials mentioned in Megasthenes' account?
Superintending rivers and land measurement
What was the significance of the Indo-Greek kings' coins in deciphering Kharosthi script?
They facilitated the decipherment of Kharosthi script
What was the primary focus of scholars in the early decades of the twentieth century?
Collecting and publishing inscriptions
What was the significance of James Prinsep's decipherment of Asokan Brahmi in 1838?
It opened up the entire field of Indian epigraphy
What was the significance of the term 'janapada' in ancient India?
It meant the land where a jana (people, clan, or tribe) settled
What was the likely effect of the empire's vast geographical extent on its administrative system?
It resulted in a more decentralized administration
What was the primary purpose of recording grants of land in inscriptions?
To provide a record of land ownership
Study Notes
Epigraphy and Indian History
- Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions, which are crucial sources for understanding Indian history.
- In the 1830s, James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, which led to significant discoveries in Indian epigraphy.
- Prinsep's work revealed that many inscriptions mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi, later identified as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers in Indian history.
The Mauryan Empire
- The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 BCE), was a significant turning point in Indian history.
- Asoka, Chandragupta's grandson, is famous for his inscriptions on rocks and pillars, which proclaimed his message of dhamma (non-violence, tolerance, and respect for all living beings).
- The Mauryan Empire was vast, with five major political centers: Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.
- The empire's administrative system was likely diverse, with regional variations in control and governance.
Kingship and the Changing Countryside
- After the Mauryan Empire, new kingdoms and chiefdoms emerged in the Deccan and southern regions, including the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
- These kingdoms were stable and prosperous, with chiefs and kings acquiring power through various means, including long-distance trade and control over resources.
- The notion of kingship changed over time, with rulers identifying with deities and projecting godlike status, such as the Kushanas, who adopted the title devaputra (son of god).
- By the fourth century CE, larger states emerged, including the Gupta Empire, which depended on samantas (local rulers) for support and resources.
Popular Perceptions of Kings
- Ordinary people's perceptions of kings are difficult to determine, but stories in anthologies like the Jatakas and Panchatantra provide some insights.
- These stories often describe the plight of subjects under wicked kings and the importance of just rulers.
Early States and the Countryside
- The sixth century BCE was a significant turning point in Indian history, marked by the growth of cities, the use of iron, and the development of coinage.
- The mahajanapadas, or great states, emerged during this period, including Magadha, which became the most powerful state.
- The Mahabharata and early Buddhist texts mention the sixteen mahajanapadas, with some, like Magadha, being ruled by kings and others, like ganas or sanghas, being oligarchies.
Towns and Trade
- New cities emerged in the sixth century BCE, including capitals of mahajanapadas, such as Rajagaha and Pataliputra.
- These cities were located along routes of communication, such as rivers, land routes, and coastal areas.
- Urban populations consisted of elites, craftspersons, and merchants, with guilds or shrenis regulating production and trade.
- Trade networks extended across the subcontinent, Central Asia, and beyond, with the use of iron tools and other technologies.### Rulers and Trade Routes
- Rulers attempted to control trade routes, offering protection for a price
- Merchants and peddlers traveled along these routes, carrying goods such as salt, grain, cloth, and spices
- Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand in the Roman Empire, and were transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean
Coins and Kings
- Coinage was introduced to facilitate exchanges, with punch-marked coins made of silver and copper being used from the 6th century BCE
- Numismatists have studied coins to reconstruct commercial networks
- Coins were issued by ruling dynasties, including the Mauryas, and also by merchants, bankers, and townspeople
- The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd century BCE
- The Kushanas issued gold coins, which were virtually identical in weight to those issued by the Roman Empire and the Parthian rulers of Iran
Trade and Economic Exchanges
- Networks of trade were not confined within political boundaries, with evidence of trade between the Roman Empire and south India
- Coins were issued by tribal republics, such as the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana, indicating their interest in economic exchanges
- The Gupta rulers issued gold coins, which facilitated long-distance transactions
Deciphering Inscriptions
- Brahmi, the script used in most Asokan inscriptions, was deciphered in the 19th century by James Prinsep
- Kharosthi, the script used in inscriptions in the northwest, was deciphered by comparing coins with Greek and Kharosthi scripts
- Epigraphists face challenges in deciphering inscriptions, including technical limitations, damage to inscriptions, and uncertainty about the meaning of words
Rural Society
- Agricultural production increased with the use of the iron-tipped ploughshare and irrigation, leading to growing differentiation among people engaged in agriculture
- Landless agricultural laborers, small peasants, and large landholders emerged, with the latter exercising control over others
- Legal texts discussed issues of control over land
Land Grants and Rural Elites
- From the early centuries of the Common Era, land grants were made to religious institutions and Brahmanas, recorded in inscriptions
- Inscriptions were written in Sanskrit, with some parts in local languages such as Tamil or Telugu
- Grants were often made by rulers, such as Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II
Themes in Indian History
- Major political and economic developments from 600 BCE to 600 CE
- Timeline of epigraphical discoveries and publications### The Prayaga Prashasti
- Describes Samudragupta as a powerful ruler without an antagonist on earth, possessing good qualities and good actions.
- He is praised as Purusha, the Supreme Being, who brings prosperity to the good and destruction to the bad.
- He is compassionate, kind, and humble, and has performed ceremonial initiations to uplift the poor and suffering.
Girnar and the Sudarshana Lake
- The Sudarshana lake was an artificial reservoir built during the Mauryan rule.
- A rock inscription from the 2nd century CE describes the lake's construction and later repair by Rudradaman, a Shaka ruler.
- The lake was repaired again in the 5th century CE during the Gupta dynasty.
The Manusmrti
- A legal text of early India, written in Sanskrit between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE.
- Advises the king to bury concealed boundary markers such as stones, bones, and cow dung to resolve land disputes.
- These markers would not decay in the soil and could be used to settle boundary controversies.
The Harshacharita
- A biography of Harshavardhana, ruler of Kanauj, composed in Sanskrit by his court poet Banabhatta in the 7th century CE.
- Describes life in a settlement on the outskirts of a forest in the Vindhyas.
- Mentions spade culture, rice-land, threshing ground, arable land, and people moving with bundles of bark, flowers, and other goods.
Prabhavati Gupta's Inscription
- Records the donation of a village to an Acharya (teacher) named Chanalasvamin by Prabhavati Gupta.
- The village, Danguna, is granted various exemptions, including freedom from entry by soldiers and policemen, and exemption from providing grass, hides, and charcoal to touring royal officers.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
- A 1st-century CE text by an anonymous Greek sailor.
- Describes the import and export of goods, including pepper, malabathrum, coins, topaz, antimony, coral, copper, tin, lead, and precious stones.
- Mentions the export of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, and tortoise shell.
Archaeological Evidence
- Excavations at Kodumanal, Tamil Nadu, have revealed a bead-making industry using precious and semi-precious stones.
Edicts of Ashoka
- King Devanampiya Piyadassi (Ashoka) speaks about his conquest of the Kalingas (present-day coastal Orissa).
- Describes the deportation of 150,000 men, the killing of 100,000, and the death of many more.
- Expresses remorse for the suffering caused by his conquest and dedicates himself to the study and spread of Dhamma.
Developments in the Subcontinent
- During the 1,500 years following the end of the Harappan civilization, agricultural settlements emerged in various parts of the subcontinent.
- Pastoral populations emerged in the Deccan and further south.
- Megaliths, elaborate stone structures, were built in central and south India from the 1st millennium BCE.
- Early states, empires, and kingdoms emerged, and new towns appeared across the subcontinent.
Learn about the significant developments in Indian epigraphy, particularly the deciphering of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts by James Prinsep. Discover how he uncovered the identity of King Piyadassi, also known as Asoka, through ancient inscriptions and coins.
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