India in 1857: Causes and Perspectives

India in 1857

• India leading up to the Revolt of 1857 is the focus
• Understanding the revolt's causes, conditions, and consequences, is important
• Previous events must be known due to their interconnected nature for Revolt of 1857 understanding

Preceding Events:

• British control in India started in 1757 at the Battle of Plassey
• Exploitation by the British increased over the next 100 years affecting Hindus and Muslims
• The Revolt of 1857 was fueled by widespread exploitation for 100 years, resulting in growing anger and resentment

Historiographical Perspectives:

• The revolt was viewed as a military uprising sparked by sepoys’ grievances by British historians
• The culmination of 100 years of built-up anger and the first war for Indian independence is the argument by Indian historians

Causes of the Revolt

• Immediate, social, economic, and political factors caused the Revolt of 1857

Political Causes - Expansionist Policies:

• Lord Dalhousie annexed Indian states into British territory by expansionist policies
• Nagpur, Jhansi, and Satara were annexed

Political Causes - Doctrine of Lapse:

• The Doctrine of Lapse was implemented in places like Jhansi, refusing to recognize adopted heirs
• Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi became an enemy by adopting a child, but the British denied his right to the throne

Political Causes - Treatment of Nana Sahib:

• Nana Sahib became an opponent of British rule and a leader in the rebellion
• Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, had his title and pension revoked

Political Causes - Annexation Policies:

• Expansionist policies annexed Satara, Jhansi, and Nagpur

Political Causes - Treatment of Mughal Emperor

• The last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was reduced to a pensioner after the British took power
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was forced to live in the Red Fort and was told his sons could not live with him
• Muslim sentiments were offended and this was seen as an attack on his dignity

Political Causes - Annexation of Awadh

• Awadh's Nawab was replaced and the British maintained troops in the region at the Nawab's expense
• Awadh was annexed on the pretext of mal-administration
• Administrative issues were cited as a reason to annex Awadh by exploiting the situation
• Indian rulers felt fear and resentment as the Nawab was sent to Calcutta and the British altered treaties to suit their needs

Economic Causes - Traditional Economy

• The traditional Indian economic system was altered, negatively impacting various groups
• Zamindars exploited peasants to collect revenue as revenue collection systems were changed
• Losing their land, peasants faced violence from both zamindars and moneylenders,

Economic Causes - Insecurity

• Unpredictable British policies led to property confiscation and insecurity for landowners
• Zamindars and taluqdars had their land seized because of Awadh's annexation

Economic Causes - Trade and Industry

• Favoring British industries, Indian trade and handicrafts were hurt by British policies
• Local industries were damaged as finished goods were imported, and raw materials were exported

Economic Causes - Unemployment

• Court officials, musicians, poets, and artists were impacted by unemployment due to annexations
• British administrations replaced royal families, and many lost their livelihoods

Social and Religious Causes - Reform Backlash

• The spread of Western culture from the establishment of British rule was seen as a threat to traditional ways
• The ban on Sati, prevention of female infanticide, and widow remarriage act were some reforms introduced
• Their culture and rituals were felt to be undermined by conservative elements
• Hinduism and Islam were ridiculed, and Christianity was spread, resulting in resentment from missionaries

Social and Religious Causes - Education

• The Western education policy of 1835 threatened the traditional roles of Hindu pandits and Muslim maulvis
• The importance of traditional education was reduced as jobs were prioritized for those with convent education

Social and Religious Causes Services

• Lack of understanding instilled fear due to new services like railways, postal services, and telegraphs

Social and Religious Causes - Equality

• Racial discrimination by the British fostered resentment
• The privileges of the upper class were threatened by principles like equality

Military Causes - Sepoy Grievances

• The Revolt of 1857 started with a mutiny by sepoys in the Company's army
• Sepoys faced grievances such as lack of rewards, promotions, and appreciation, despite their contributions
• Indian soldiers were capped at the rank of Subedar, unlike their British counterparts
• Discontent was fueled by unequal pay and facilities, with British soldiers receiving more

Military Causes - Lack of Respect

• Indian soldiers' capabilities were disregarded by Senior British officers

Military Causes - Overseas Service Act

• The Overseas Service Act of 1856 required new recruits to serve abroad which was against their religious beliefs
• Annexation of Awadh left many soldiers unemployed, increasing anger
• Crossing the sea was seen as a loss of religious and cultural standing
• The numerical strength of Indian soldiers relative to British soldiers encouraged revolt

Immediate Causes - The Spark

• The issue of greased cartridges was the catalyst for the revolt

Immediate Causes - Greased Cartridges

• Soldiers had to bite off a greased paper cover before loading New Enfield rifles
• Both Muslims and Hindus were offended as rumors spread that the grease was made from pig and cow fat

Immediate Causes - Reaction

• Mangal Pandey of the Barrackpore Cantonment refused to use the new rifle on March 29, 1857
• He was then arrested, assaulted British officers, and was sentenced to death

Immediate Causes - Punishment

• Outrage was sparked as 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the cartridges and were imprisoned

Events of the Revolt - Meerut

• British officers were attacked, and their fellow soldiers were freed as soldiers in Meerut mutinied after their comrades were jailed
• The telegraph line to Delhi was cut, and property was destroyed

Events of the Revolt - Delhi

• Seeking leadership from Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, the rebellious soldiers marched to Delhi, joined by local people
• The army revolt was transformed into a war for independence
• Bahadur Shah Zafar agreed to lead the revolt after initially hesitating and was declared Emperor of India

Events of the Revolt - British

• Massacres and summary executions ensued to instill fear as the British army, arriving from Punjab, recaptured Delhi in September 1857
• The Mughal dynasty ended as Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested, exiled to Rangoon (Myanmar), and his sons were publicly executed

Centers and Leaders of the Revolt - Kanpur

• The British quickly regained control, but Nana Sahib led the revolt in Kanpur
• Tatya Tope fought bravely but was betrayed and hanged; he was Nana Sahib's commander
• Nana Sahib reportedly fled to Nepal

Centers and Leaders of the Revolt - Lucknow

• Queen Hazrat Mahal lead the revolt in Lucknow, the capital of Awadh
• The British eventually regained control with reinforcements after initially losing
• Queen Hazrat Mahal fled to Nepal

Centers and Leaders of the Revolt - Jhansi

• The 22-year-old queen of Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai, led the revolt in Central India
• She was prompted to fight back because the British took control of Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse
• She regained control of Gwalior with Tatya Tope's help but was attacked again by the British
• Rani Laxmibai died in battle
• The rebellion continued for 14 more months before being suppressed

Result of the Revolt

• The Revolt of 1857 resulted in significant changes and marked a milestone in Indian history

Result of the Revolt - End of Company Rule

• British Parliament and Queen directly controlled India as British East India Company rule ended
• For the welfare of the Indian people, the Queen declared they would work

Result of the Revolt - Treaties

• Treaties with Indian rulers were assured respect

Result of the Revolt - Abolishment

• The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished, allowing the adoption of heirs

Result of the Revolt - Reconciliation

• Those imprisoned for rebelling (except those who killed British officers) were released

Result of the Revolt - Non-Interference

• The British government pledged to avoid interfering in religious and social matters

Result of the Revolt - Indian Participation

• Indians were promised rights to join the administration based on merit

Result of the Revolt - Troops

• British troops were increased to suppress future rebellions

Nature of the Revolt

• All rebels wanted to expel the British even though motivations differed
• It was seen by British historians as an army revolt, while Indian historians saw it as a result of accumulated grievances
• Hindu-Muslim unity was strong during the revolt

Costs

• The uprising was an expression of the Indian people's desire for freedom
• Approximately 150,000 people, mostly civilians, lost their lives in the revolt