ABO blood groups, circulatory system

It stretches/expands under high pressure (when ventricle contracts). It recoils back under low pressure (when ventricle relaxes). This smooths blood flow and helps maintain blood pressure

The muscle contracts to constrict the arteriole, helping to regulating blood flow to the capillaries

erythrocytes of O-type do not have antigens present on cell. Plasma of O-type has antibodies for both A and B antigens. If blood with A and/or B antigens is present, O-type plasma antibodies will destroy the donated blood. This results in agglutination.

The four blood groups are A, B, AB, and O. They are determined by antigens on the RBC/erythrocyte and opposite antibodies found in the plasma.

Group A has A antigens on red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.

Group B has B antigens on red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in the plasma.

Group AB has both A and B antigens on red blood cells and no antibodies in the plasma.

Group O has no antigens on red blood cells and both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.

The recipient's immune system may recognize Rh antigens as foreign and mount an immune response.

Platelets adhere to the site of injury and release clotting factors that promote the formation of fibrin, reinforcing the platelet plug and forming a blood clot.

T lymphocytes directly attack infected or abnormal cells, regulate immune responses by releasing cytokines, and provide long-term immunity through memory responses.

Red blood cell transfusions help restore oxygen-carrying capacity to the bloodstream, replenish lost blood volume, and improve oxygen delivery to tissues.

Neutrophils are phagocytes that engulf and destroy bacteria and fungi, playing a crucial role in the innate immune response.

Memory T cells persist after an initial infection and can rapidly mount an immune response upon re-encountering the same pathogen, leading to faster and more effective clearance.

The mammalian heart consists of four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. It pumps blood throughout the body, receiving deoxygenated blood from the body and pumping it to the lungs for oxygenation, then receiving oxygenated blood and pumping it to the rest of the body.

Capillaries allow for the exchange of fluid between the blood and the interstitial fluid surrounding the cells, helping maintain fluid balance in the tissues and regulating blood volume and pressure.

Metabolic wastes and lactic acid cause arteries to dilate, increasing blood flow to tissues to deliver more oxygen and nutrients during periods of increased metabolic activity.

Erythrocytes are disc-shaped cells without a nucleus, responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carrying carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs for exhalation.

Platelets play a crucial role in blood clotting (hemostasis) by aggregating at the site of blood vessel injury and forming a plug to stop bleeding.

Leukocytes are nucleated cells involved in immune defense, with different types like neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils, each having specific functions in fighting infections.

Plasma transports various substances, including nutrients (glucose, amino acids), gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide), hormones, waste products (urea, creatinine), and electrolytes (sodium, potassium).

Preventing oxygen-rich blood from mixing with oxygen-poor blood

Contraction of the artery's muscle to reduce the diameter and blood flow

Systole: Heart contraction to pump blood out, Diastole: Heart relaxation to fill with blood

By manually pumping blood through chest compressions when the heart has stopped working

Supplying blood to the capillaries

The aorta carries blood from the left ventricle to the body

Due to the significant distance between their hearts and heads, giraffes face challenges in pumping blood with enough force to overcome gravity and the height of their long necks.

The giraffe has high arterial blood pressure and one-way valves in its neck arteries to prevent backflow of blood when lowering its head to drink water.

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one complete heart beat. Systole is the pumping phase when the heart muscle contracts, and diastole is the filling phase when the heart muscle relaxes.

Vasodilation widens blood vessels, increasing blood flow and decreasing blood pressure. Vasoconstriction narrows blood vessels, decreasing blood flow and increasing blood pressure.

Papillary muscles prevent inversion or prolapse of the atrioventricular valves during ventricular contraction by tensioning the chordae tendineae.

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation. This is because the right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

Vasodilators widen arterioles, increasing blood flow to muscle tissues to supply oxygen and nutrients during exercise.

Semilunar valves prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles when they relax, ensuring blood only flows in one direction.

The 'lub' sound is due to the closing of atrioventricular valves, and the 'dub' sound is due to the closing of semilunar valves.

The left ventricle wall is thicker to pump blood with more force through the blood vessels supplying the body.

Blood clot formation involves platelets sticking to the injury site, followed by fibrin network formation to trap blood cells and platelets, preventing excessive bleeding.

Platelets adhere to the rough surface of an injury to form a platelet plug, initiating the clotting process.

If a thrombus breaks loose and lodges in a vital blood vessel in the brain, it can cause a blockage leading to a stroke.

Fibrin forms an insoluble protein network that traps blood cells and platelets, contributing to the formation of a stable blood clot.

Chordae tendineae hold the valve flaps in place during ventricular contraction, preventing backflow of blood between atria and ventricles.

Contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle in arterioles controls blood flow to muscle cells, ensuring adequate oxygen and nutrient supply during physical activity.

It stretches/expands under high pressure (when ventricle contracts). This muscle recoils under low pressure (when ventricle relaxes). This smooths blood flow and maintains blood pressure.

Muscle contracts, constricting the arteriole, narrowing the size of lumen, regulating blood flow to capillaries

There are four chambers (left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle). The atrium is positioned in the top half of the heart whereas the ventricles are positioned in the bottom half of the heart. The septum separates the left and right sides of the heart. Ventricles have thicker walls than the atria because the atria is responsible for receiving the blood but the ventricles have to pump it out of the heart. The right ventricle pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery whereas the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood around the entire body via the aorta so it has to withstand greater pressure, thus it has the thickest walls. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava (brings blood back from above the heart) and inferior vena cava (brings blood back from below the heart). Furthermore, tricuspid valve is between right atrium and right ventricle; bicuspid valve is between left atrium and left ventricle; pulmonary valve is between right ventricle and pulmonary artery; aortic valve is between left ventricle and aorta.

erythrocytes of O-type doo not have antigens present on cell. Plasma of O-type has antibodies for both A and B antigens. If erythrocyte with A and/or B antigens is present, O-type plasma antibodies will destroy the donated blood. This results in agglutination.

A: antigen A, antibody B B: antigen B, antibody A AB: antigen A and B, no antibodies O: no antigens, both antibodies Rh+: Rh antigen, no anti-Rh antibody Rh-: no Rh antigen, anti Rh antibody

The clumping together of micro-organisms or of blood cells

A blood group refers to a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells. The two most well-known blood group systems are the ABO system and the Rh system.

A blood transfusion is a medical procedure in which blood or blood components are transferred from one person (donor) into the bloodstream of another person (recipient). This procedure is often necessary to replace blood lost due to surgery, injury, or disease, or to treat certain medical conditions such as anaemia or bleeding disorders.

Matching blood groups between donors and recipients is crucial to prevent adverse reactions during blood transfusions. Incompatible blood transfusions can trigger immune responses in the recipient, leading to agglutination, hemolysis, and other serious complications.

ABO Blood Groups: The ABO blood group system classifies blood into four main types based on the presence or absence of antigens A and B on the surface of red blood cells: A, B, AB, and O. Additionally, individuals may have antibodies against the antigens they lack. For example, blood group A individuals have anti-B antibodies, and blood group B individuals have anti-A antibodies.

Rh Blood Groups: The Rh blood group system classifies blood based on the presence or absence of the Rh antigen (also known as the D antigen) on the surface of red blood cells. Individuals who have the Rh antigen are Rh-positive (e.g., A+, B+, AB+), while those who lack the antigen are Rh-negative (e.g., A-, B-, AB-). Rh-negative individuals do not naturally produce anti-Rh antibodies unless they are exposed to Rh-positive blood, such as during a transfusion or pregnancy.

Answer: The red blood cells are round and are a deeper colour around the edge than in the centre. The colour distribution indicates that the cells are thicker towards the edges than in the centre; that is, they are biconcave.

2x the diameter

there are 700 times as many red as white

Platelets are cell fragments (1/3 the size of an erythrocyte) and so they are not stained by most of the stains used to view blood cells