Imperial China: Key Concepts and Dynasties

Imperial China: Key Concepts and Dynasties

• Mandate of Heaven: Emperors ruled with divine approval. Loss of popular support or poor rule could result in loss of the Mandate and overthrow.

• Bureaucracy: Organized government structure with levels of authority. Often, officials were selected via civil service exams. Corruption could occur.

• Meritocracy: Positions earned based on ability and achievements, often through exams.

• Civil Service Exams: Confucian-based assessments to select officials, ensuring educated and capable administrators.

• Confucianism: Philosophical system emphasizing order, harmony, respect, and morality. Highly influential in Chinese governance.

Dynastic Overviews

• Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE):

  • Reunified China after the Period of Disunion.
  • Initiated the Grand Canal.
  • Flourishing Buddhism and agriculture.
  • Fell due to high taxes, forced labor, and rebellions.

• Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE):

  • Considered a Golden Age, known for political stability, cultural growth, and economic prosperity, founded by Emperor Taizong.
  • Invented woodblock printing.
  • Supported by poetry (Li Bo, Du Fu), the Equal Field System, and Confucian governance.
  • Weakened by the An Lushan Rebellion and internal corruption.

• Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE):

  • Established a meritocratic government, expanding civil service exams.
  • Advanced technologies (movable type printing, paper money, maritime trade).
  • Neo-Confucianism became dominant ideology.
  • Fell to Mongol invasions.

• Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368 CE):

  • First Mongol rule of China under Kublai Khan.
  • Integrated Chinese bureaucracy while maintaining Mongol dominance.
  • Cosmopolitan period; Marco Polo's visit, Buddhist growth.
  • Declined due to economic problems, corruption, and rebellions like the Red Turban Rebellion.

• Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE):

  • Restored Chinese rule after the Mongols.
  • Admiral Zheng He's voyages (Southeast Asia, India, East Africa).
  • Construction of the Forbidden City; economic prosperity.
  • Fell due to corruption, internal rebellions, and encroaching Manchu power.

Political Systems

• Tang Dynasty: Scholar-officials, though meritocratic in theory, were often aristocrats due to wealth and family connections, influencing their appointment.

• Song Dynasty: Increased meritocracy, with positions awarded based on demonstrated merit.

• Yuan Dynasty: Shift from Confucian scholar-official system as Mongols and non-Chinese held positions. This difference weakened traditional Chinese governance and led to instability.

Economic Changes (10th–13th Centuries)

• Agriculture: Southern China's climate led to rice cultivation, enhancing agricultural output with new techniques like crop rotation and irrigation systems (e.g., chain pumps).

• Trade and Commerce: The Grand Canal strengthened internal trade. Copper coins and paper money improved transactions, and advancements in navigation (compasses, shipbuilding) expanded maritime trade with other regions.

• Urbanization: Cities like Kaifeng and Hangzhou grew rapidly due to commerce and migration to urban centers from rural settings (artisans and landowners).

The Civil Service System

• Benefits: Highly educated scholars provided competent governance; merit-based appointments fostered a skilled bureaucracy.

• Drawbacks: Scholars' focus on Confucian principles often neglected practical fields like science and technology, and devaluation of business and trade affected economic progress.

Key Concepts Summary

• Mandate of Heaven: Divine right to rule, contingent on popular support.

• Civil Service Examinations: Confucian classics-based assessments to choose officials.

• Meritocracy: Government positions determined by ability, not birthright.

• Bureaucracy: Organized government structure.