Immunology Basics Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT considered a component of the first line of defense in the immune system?

  • Natural killer cells (correct)
  • Stomach acid
  • Skin
  • Mucous membranes

    • What is a primary function of antimicrobial peptides like defensins?

  • To neutralize toxins produced by pathogens
  • To create pores in bacterial membranes (correct)
  • To directly destroy viruses in the bloodstream
  • To stimulate inflammation and fevers

    • Which cells are primarily involved in the innate immune response among the following?

  • Neutrophils (correct)
  • B Cells
  • CD8+ T cells
  • Antibodies

    • Which part of the immune system is activated if the innate response is not sufficient?

    <p>Adaptive immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which one of the following statements best describes the normal microbiome's relationship with the body?

    <p>Microbes compete with harmful pathogens and help in digestion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of T cell is known as a Helper T cell?

    <p>CD4+ T cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the second line of defense in the immune system?

    <p>A successful pathogen invasion through the first line of defense.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type is specialized for combating parasitic infections?

    <p>Eosinophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do beneficial bacteria play in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract?

    <p>They take up space that pathogens could occupy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the immune system differentiate between pathogens and self?

    <p>By using the normal microbiome as a model.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of prolonged antibiotic use on the microbiome?

    <p>It harms beneficial microbiota, making one more susceptible to infections.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a physical barrier in the first line of defense?

    <p>Inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of mast cell degranulation during acute inflammation?

    <p>To release histamines and cytokines that initiate the inflammatory response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about acute inflammation is true?

    <p>It can involve the infiltration of immune cells like neutrophils.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the classic signs of inflammation?

    <p>Increased swelling due to fluid accumulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What systemic reaction occurs during inflammation that is triggered by pyrogens?

    <p>Fever</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the complement system in inflammation?

    <p>To enhance the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component is NOT part of the second line of defense in immunity?

    <p>Skin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the release of acute phase reactants like fibrinogen?

    <p>Interleukin-6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does inflammation help coordinate with adaptive immunity?

    <p>It activates the adaptive immune system for a targeted response if innate response is insufficient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does bradykinin contribute to inflammation?

    <p>It increases vascular permeability and stimulates pain receptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of Helper T Cells (CD4)?

    <p>To activate other immune cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage do T cells express both CD4 and CD8 markers?

    <p>Double Positive Stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of central tolerance in T and B cell development?

    <p>To prevent the immune system from attacking the body’s own tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significantly impacts T cell development during illness, such as in DiGeorge Syndrome?

    <p>A lack of thymus tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which immune deficiency is characterized by a lack of both B and T cell functions?

    <p>Combined Immune Deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are responsible for producing antibodies?

    <p>Plasma Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes Negative Selection in T cell development?

    <p>Cells that bind strongly to self-antigens are eliminated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do Regulatory T Cells play in the immune system?

    <p>They eliminate self-reactive and non-functional cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which immune deficiency results primarily from trauma and chemotherapy?

    <p>Acquired Deficiencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Memory B Cells?

    <p>To persist after an infection for faster responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does B Cell Deficiency primarily impact the immune system?

    <p>Results in decreased circulating antibodies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the Single Positive Stage of T cell development?

    <p>T cells express CD4 or CD8 markers only</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is innate immunity compared to nurses in a healthcare system?

    <p>They provide immediate care as the first line of defense</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which immune deficiency is often associated with a lack of immune response due to physical barrier failures?

    <p>Innate Immune Deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of cytotoxic T cells upon binding to an infected cell?

    <p>To induce cell death in the infected cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critical aspect of immune response is highlighted by the example of AIDS?

    <p>The vulnerability of the adaptive immune response due to Helper T cell depletion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of regulatory T cells in the immune system?

    <p>To prevent autoimmune responses by regulating immune activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do antigen-presenting cells (APCs) contribute to the adaptive immune response?

    <p>By processing pathogens and presenting antigens on MHC molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What signals are necessary for B cell activation?

    <p>Activation from Helper T cells and antigen binding via BCR</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates TH1 cells from TH2 cells in terms of immune response?

    <p>TH1 cells promote a cell-mediated response, while TH2 cells activate the humoral response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance is primarily responsible for promoting vasodilation and increasing vascular permeability during inflammation?

    <p>Histamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of plasma cells in the immune response?

    <p>To secrete antibodies specific to antigens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of chemotactic factors in the immune response?

    <p>To signal immune cell migration to the injury site</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the two-signal requirement for T and B cell activation?

    <p>Both signals ensure only appropriate immune responses occur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cytokine is known for inducing fever as a potent pyrogen?

    <p>IL-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do M1 macrophages primarily play in the immune response?

    <p>Killing pathogens and promoting inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main outcome of B cell activation?

    <p>Proliferation and differentiation into plasma and memory B cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do T cells mature after originating from lymphoid stem cells?

    <p>Thymus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are primarily responsible for the production of antibodies?

    <p>B Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The classical pathway of the complement system is initiated by which mechanism?

    <p>Antibodies bound to pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During development, what is the significance of clonal diversity in T and B cells?

    <p>Ensures a wide-ranging response to various pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of neutrophils in the immune response?

    <p>Short-lived and form pus upon death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of immune response primarily deals with extracellular pathogens?

    <p>Humoral immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the role of Helper T cells?

    <p>They provide activation signals to B and other T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the kinin system in the immune response?

    <p>To promote inflammation and pain response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cytokine acts as an anti-inflammatory and signals for the reduction of inflammation?

    <p>IL-10</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of healing process occurs when the injury is significant and involves scar tissue formation?

    <p>Healing by secondary intention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism through which cytotoxic T cells eliminate infected cells?

    <p>By releasing enzymes that induce apoptosis in the infected cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phase of wound healing primarily focuses on the migration of neutrophils to the injury site?

    <p>Inflammation phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Natural Killer (NK) cells primarily target which type of cells?

    <p>Infected or cancerous cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components of the complement system are responsible for promoting vasodilation?

    <p>Anaphylatoxins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common result of dysfunctional collagen synthesis in wound healing?

    <p>Hypertrophic scars</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main type of cell involved in the proliferation phase of wound healing?

    <p>Fibroblasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor in guiding phagocytes towards the injury site?

    <p>Chemotaxis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes T Cells in the immune response?

    <p>Coordinate and execute specific immune responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the adaptive immune system plays a key role in recognizing and responding to specific pathogens?

    <p>B cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the term 'clonal diversity' in the context of the adaptive immune system?

    <p>Generation of diverse B and T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do macrophages contribute to the immune response?

    <p>They can polarize into two different types based on signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory cell is crucial for a quicker immune response upon re-exposure to a pathogen?

    <p>Memory cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do macrophages play in the wound healing process?

    <p>Clear debris from the injury site</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor could impair wound healing by restricting the migration of inflammatory cells?

    <p>Ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes adaptive immunity from innate immunity?

    <p>Adaptive immunity targets specific pathogens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of immunity involves the production of antibodies by B cells?

    <p>Humoral immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of effector cells in the adaptive immune response?

    <p>Mounting an active attack against infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do B cells mature after originating in the bone marrow?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of malnutrition on wound healing?

    <p>Reduced collagen synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)?

    <p>Creates pores in the membranes of bacteria leading to cell lysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pathway in the clotting system is triggered by external trauma?

    <p>Extrinsic Pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of bradykinin in the kinin system?

    <p>It increases vascular permeability and stimulates pain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chronic inflammation can result from which of the following?

    <p>High lipid and wax content in microorganisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of chronic inflammation?

    <p>A dense infiltration of lymphocytes and macrophages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is involved in wound healing and often repairs tissue?

    <p>Regeneration or repair of tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What signals the activation of leukocytes during an inflammatory response?

    <p>Histamine release from damaged cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the initial trigger for the inflammatory response?

    <p>Injury or pathogen entry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the classical pathway of the complement system serve?

    <p>It enhances the immune response through antibody binding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can chronic inflammation lead to in terms of tissue health?

    <p>Destruction of surrounding healthy tissue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following options describes the relationship between the clotting system and immune response?

    <p>Clotting prevents pathogen entry and prepares tissue for healing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of pus formation in chronic inflammation?

    <p>Reflects a high concentration of neutrophils and prolonged immune activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to immune cells trapped in a granuloma over time?

    <p>They undergo apoptosis and decompose due to nutrient deficiency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary immunoglobulin involved in Type 1 hypersensitivity reactions?

    <p>IgE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Type 2 hypersensitivity reactions?

    <p>Characterized by the binding of antibodies to specific tissue antigens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common result of mast cell degranulation in Type 1 hypersensitivity?

    <p>Increased blood vessel permeability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism is NOT characteristic of Type 2 hypersensitivity reactions?

    <p>Delayed T cell response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ABO blood group compatibility is significant in preventing which type of hypersensitivity reaction?

    <p>Type 2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a key feature of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)?

    <p>Characterized by formation of immune complexes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What symptom is commonly associated with Type 1 hypersensitivity reactions?

    <p>Bronchospasms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a classic example of a Type 4 hypersensitivity reaction?

    <p>Allergic contact dermatitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Type 3 hypersensitivity reactions, what role do immune complexes play?

    <p>Attract inflammatory cells and complement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is NOT a mechanism involved in Type 2 hypersensitivity reactions?

    <p>Immune complex formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of a Type 4 hypersensitivity reaction?

    <p>Mediated by cytotoxic T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of antibodies do individuals with O blood type have?

    <p>Anti-A and anti-B antibodies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the dimerization in Type 1 hypersensitivity reactions?

    <p>Two IgE bind to one allergen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the formation of memory T cells in Type 4 hypersensitivity?

    <p>Direct contact with a sensitizing agent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of effector B cells?

    <p>Produce antibodies specific to pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of immunity is provided by memory B cells?

    <p>Active humoral immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do antibodies facilitate the destruction of pathogens?

    <p>By neutralization and agglutination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characterizes active humoral immunity?

    <p>Immunity that develops following natural infection or vaccination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes passive humoral immunity from active humoral immunity?

    <p>Passive immunity involves the transfer of antibodies from another source.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins in T cell activation?

    <p>Display processed antigens to T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are responsible for activating B cells during an immune response?

    <p>Helper T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves antibodies clumping pathogens for easier engulfment by phagocytes?

    <p>Agglutination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of vaccinations?

    <p>Train the immune system to recognize pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the production of antibodies in effector B cells?

    <p>Binding of a specific antigen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cell types directly destroys infected or abnormal cells?

    <p>Cytotoxic T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about memory cells is true?

    <p>They enable a faster response upon re-exposure to the same antigen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of active immunity?

    <p>Long-lasting due to memory formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which process are cytokines released by Helper T cells?

    <p>Immune response amplification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of immune cells are activated by MHC Class II proteins?

    <p>Helper T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Immune System Introduction

    • Three lines of defense: physical and biochemical barriers, innate immune response, adaptive immune response
    • First Line of Defense: Prevents pathogen entry, using skin, mucous membranes, cilia, stomach acid, and urine flow.
    • Second Line of Defense: Activated when pathogens breach barriers, involving inflammation and immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, and NK cells. (Monocytes and Basophils/eosinophils are less prominent in this stage).
    • Third Line of Defense (Adaptive): Activated if the innate response is insufficient. This involves lymphocytes like T cells (CD4+, CD8+) and B cells. B cells produce antibodies.

    Natural Barriers and Antimicrobial Peptides

    • Natural Barriers: Physical and chemical barriers that prevent pathogen entry (e.g. skin, mucous membranes).
    • Antimicrobial Peptides: Short proteins that create pores in bacterial membranes, disrupting bacterial function. This includes defensins and cathelicidins.

    Normal Microbiome

    • Definition: Population of bacteria in the body, primarily residing in the GI tract.
    • Colonization: Colonizes GI tract shortly after birth. Also present on skin, respiratory tract, vagina and urethra.
    • Mutualistic Relationship: Coexists with the host, benefiting both. Mutual advantage, whereby microbiota occupy space, provide enzymes, vitamins and anti-bacterial factors to keep them in check, training the adaptive immune system, and compete for resources with pathogens.
    • Alterations: Prolonged antibiotic use, dietary changes and geographical location can impact the microbiome, potentially increasing susceptibility to infections.

    Benefits to the Immune System

    • Space Occupation: Competition for resources by beneficial bacteria limiting space for pathogens.
    • Training the Immune System: Microbiome helping develop appropriate immunity, learning the difference between self and non-self.
    • Additional Functions: Produce enzymes, useful metabolites and anti-bacterial factors.

    Acute Inflammation

    • Key Events: Mast cell degranulation, plasma system activation (complement, clotting, kinin), release of cellular products leading to vasodilation, increased permeability, and cellular infiltration.
    • Vascular Changes: Normal blood vessels have tight junctions but become more permeable during inflammation.
    • Benefits of Inflammation: Prevents further damage, contains response, coordinates with adaptive immunity, and prepares for healing.
    • Cardinal Signs: Redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function (Rubor, Tumor, Calor, Dolor, Functio Laesa).
    • Systemic Manifestations: Fever (increased body temperature), leukocytosis (increased white blood cells), and plasma protein synthesis. Acute phase reactants e.g., fibrinogen & complement proteins are also synthesized.

    Chemical and Cellular Mediators of Inflammation

    • Mast Cells: Release histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and platelet activating factor. These promote vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and attract other immune cells.
    • Cytokines: Small signaling molecules facilitating communication between cells, promoting or suppressing inflammation (pro-inflammatory/anti-inflammatory) e.g., TNF-alpha, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8; IL-10, TGF-beta.
    • Cells: Neutrophils (first responders), macrophages (versatile long-lived cells, M1 and M2 types) and NK cells (kill infected/cancerous cells).
    • Phagocytosis: Neutrophils & macrophages engulf and digest pathogens and cellular debris - key steps include adhesion/margination, chemotaxis, engulfment, and digestion. Phagocytosis is a crucial part of the innate immune response.
    • Complement System: Enhance immune response by labeling pathogens for destruction or directly damaging them, (classical, alternative, and lectin pathways).
    • Plasma Protein Systems: (Complement, Clotting, Kinin) Important roles in marking pathogens, clotting, and regulating local inflammation.

    Chronic Inflammation

    • Definition: Prolonged inflammatory response (> 2 weeks) that may result from insufficient initial response or an ongoing threat.
    • Causes: Inherent qualities of the pathogen (e.g., high lipid content resisting removal), certain pathogens persisting inside macrophages, or ongoing chemical or physical irritation.
    • Characteristics: Dense infiltration of lymphocytes and macrophages, tissue damage.
    • Granulomas: Form when pathogens are difficult to eliminate, leading to capsule formation that can potentially harm tissues.

    Wound Healing

    • Overview: Process of restoring tissue to its original state – two mechanisms.
    • Regeneration: Replacing injured tissue for complete restoration of function (first intention).
    • Repair: Filling gaps with scar tissue (composed of fibroblasts and collagen) when regeneration is not possible (second intention).
    • Phases: Inflammation, Proliferation, and Remodeling/Maturation
    • Dysfunctional Healing: Factors like poor blood supply, infection, malnutrition, and immunosuppressive drugs can impair the process and contribute to abnormal scarring (including keloid scarring)

    Adaptive Immunity Introduction

    • Overview: Targets specific pathogens when innate response is insufficient. Different from innate, this response develops long-term memory.
    • Key Components: Lymphoid stem cells (giving rise to T and B cells). T cells mature in the thymus, while B cells mature in the bone marrow.
    • Clonal Diversity: Creation of diverse B and T cells capable of binding many different pathogens.
    • Clonal Selection: When a pathogen is encountered, specific B or T cells are selected, proliferating and differentiating into effector and memory cells.
    • Clonal Expansion: Rapidly produce identical (clonal) cells (army), enabling effective response to the pathogen.
    • Cell Residency: B and T cells that mature reside in lymph nodes & spleen

    Adaptive Immunity Crash Course Pt. 2

    • Active/Passive Immunity:
    • Active Humoral Immunity: Body encounters pathogen and develops immunity via memory cells (Natural or Vaccination).
    • Passive Humoral Immunity: (Temporary) Receives antibodies from another source (Mother to fetus, Serum treatment).
    • Immunocompetence/Self-Tolerance: B cells are competent enough to recognize and bind specific antigens and avoid attacking itself.

    B Cells and Antigen Recognition

    • Antigens: Foreign invaders initiating immune response (bacteria/viruses).
    • B Cell Development: Originate and mature in bone marrow; gain immunocompetence, ability to recognize & bind specific antigens, and self-tolerance to avoid attacking the body's own tissues.

    Antibody function

    • Mechanisms of Action: Neutralization (blocks pathogen binding), Agglutination (clumping for phagocytosis), Complement activation (enhances immune response)

    Lymphocyte Development (Intro)

    • Two Main Types of Lymphocytes:
    • B Cells: Produce antibodies.
    • T Cells: Coordinate immune response and kill infected cells.
    • Lymphoid Stem Cell Origin: Originate in bone marrow developing into T cells (maturating in the thymus) and B cells (maturating in bone marrow).
    • Key Processes in Development:
    • Clonal Diversity: Wide receptor variety to match various pathogens
    • Clonal Selection: Activate specific cells matching pathogens
    • Differences of T and B Cell development: T cells mature in the thymus, while B cells develop in the bone marrow.
    • Tolerance Mechanisms (both central and peripheral): Elimination of self-reactive cells preventing autoimmunity.

    T Cell Development

    • Takes place in the thymus:
    • Double Negative Stage: lacks CD4 and CD8
    • Double Positive Stage: expresses both CD4 and CD8
    • Positive Selection: Responds to self-MHC
    • Negative Selection: Eliminates cells recognizing self-antigens strongly
    • Single Positive Stage: expresses either CD4 or CD8
    • Differentiation: Become Helper T cells (CD4) or Cytotoxic T cells (CD8).

    B Cell Development

    • Maturation in the bone marrow:
    • Develops B cell receptors (BCRs): These are the same as antibodies (but not exposed).
    • Immunocompetence/self tolerance: Ability to bind specific antigens, and to avoid binding to itself (similar to T cells)

    Immune Deficiencies

    • Overview: Severe alterations in functioning of the immune system.
    • Congenital: Present at birth, due to genetic issues.
    • Acquired: Develop later in life, e.g. trauma, chemotherapy, infections.
    • Types of Cells Affected: B cell deficiences lead to reduced circulating antibodies; T cell deficiencies compromise adaptive immunity (cellular and humoral).
    • Severity: Innate deficiency is the most critical, followed by combined, T-cell deficiencies; B-cell deficiences.

    Hypersensitivities (Sections)

    • Hypersensitivity Reactions: An overreaction by the immune system to harmless or beneficial substances.
    • Type 1 (IgE-mediated): Allergic reactions; allergen exposure primes mast cells with IgE, triggering degranulation upon re-exposure; releasing histamine. Examples: itching, redness, rhinitis, severe reactions (anaphylaxis)
    • Type 2 (Tissue-specific): Antibodies bind to specific cell surface antigens. (Hemolytic, Thrombocytopenic Purpura, Myasthenia Gravis) Result in cell lysis/damage. Important Example: Blood type compatibility (ABO).
    • Type 3 (Immune complex-mediated): Immune complexes (antibodies + antigens) deposit in tissues. Example: Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE).
    • Type 4 (Cell-mediated): Cytotoxic T cells and macrophages cause delayed response (e.g. contact dermatitis). Example: poison ivy reaction or Graft vs host disease.

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    Test your knowledge on the components and functions of the immune system with this quiz. From the first line of defense to T cells, explore the key elements of innate and adaptive immunity. Perfect for students studying immunology or biology.

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