Idioms and Punctuation

Idioms

• Words, phrases, or expressions with non-literal meanings.
• Teach easy language understanding and usage.
• Each language has its own set of idioms.

Punctuation

• Clarifies meaning and sets tone/atmosphere in writing.

Full Stop, Question Mark, and Exclamation Mark

• Used at the end of sentences.

Full Stop (.)

• Ends sentences that aren't questions or exclamations.

Question Mark (?)

• Indicates a question or expresses disbelief.

Exclamation Mark (!)

• Shows surprise or strong emotion.

Capital Letters

• Used at the beginning of sentences.
• Used for proper nouns, main words in titles, and abbreviations of proper nouns.

Comma (,)

• Most common punctuation mark
• Separates words/phrases in lists.
• Separates additional information or phrases in a sentence.

Semi-Colon (;)

• Links closely related simple sentences with equally important ideas.
• Shows contrast in balanced sentences.
• Joins main clauses in a compound sentence, acting as a coordinating conjunction.

Colon (:)

• Indicates a list, explanation, or idea is following.
• Introduces a quotation.
• Follows the speaker in script writing (dialogue).

Dash (–)

• Similar purpose to a comma, colon, or semi-colon.
• Provides additional information.
• Separates a comment/afterthought.
• Creates a dramatic pause.

Hyphen (-)

• Links prefixes to words or joins words to form compound words.
• Helps differentiate meanings.
• Used when a prefix ends and the joined word starts with the same vowel.
• Links words that cannot be completed on one line.

Ellipsis (...)

• Indicates an incomplete sentence or omitted content.

Brackets ( ) (Parenthesis)

• Enclose explanations, asides, the writer's opinion, or additional information.
• Can sometimes be replaced by commas or dashes.

Quotation Marks (“ ”)

• Indicate direct speech.
• Quote someone else's words.
• Used to 'excuse' slang/foreign words.
• Used for titles of books, films, plays, etc., and can be replaced by italics or underlining.

Italics

• Used for emphasis.
• Used for titles of books, films, plays, etc., and can be replaced by inverted commas or underlining.
• Used to 'excuse' foreign words; can also be written in inverted commas.

Apostrophe

• Shows possession
• Shows omission of letters

Possession Rules

• Add 's to singular words, even if ending in -s.
• Add 's to plural forms not ending in -s.
• Add ' to plural nouns ending in -s.
• Add 's to compound words.
• Add 's to the last noun to show joint possession.

Omission/Contraction

• Apostrophes used in contractions.
• Contractions are words with omitted letters
• Apostrophe replaces omitted letters
• Contractions common in speaking and informal writing.
• don't = do not
• I'm = I am
• he'll = he will
• who's = who is
• shouldn't = should not
• didn't = did not
• could've = could have (NOT "could of"!)

Root Words

• Most English words borrowed from other languages, mainly Latin or Greek.
• Knowing root meanings aids in understanding unknown words; prefixes and suffixes help.
• Words consist of root, prefix, and suffix

Prefixes

• Added to the front of a word.
• Change the meaning or purpose.
• Example: un + kind = unkind

Suffixes

• Word ending.
• Added to the end of a root word.
• Change/add to the meaning and show how the word is used in a sentence.
• Example: Walk + ing = walking

Abbreviations

• Shortened word/phrase forms still said as the full word/words.
• Examples: "St." for "Street", "Mon." for "Monday", "Ex." for "example", "cm" for "centimeters".
• Some are based on older word forms; ounce (oz) and pound (lb).

Acronyms

• Technically, must spell out another word.
• Simplify long organization name and are commonly used.
• Example: scuba diving, acronym of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.

Initialisms

• A series of initial letters that aren't pronounced as a word.
• Examples: VIP, NBA, rofl, and BLT.

Sentences

• Every sentence has a subject and predicate.
• A predicate tells what the subject does or is.
• The subject is who or what the sentence is about.

Nouns

• Name:People, places, things, or ideas.

Common Noun

• General category of people, places or things.
• Doesn't represent a specific category or instance.
• eg hospital, pencil, car

Concrete Noun

• Something that can be seen, heard, smelled, touched, or tasted.
• eg: book, pizza, music

Abstract Noun

• An idea state, or intangible concept
• They cannot be seen or touched, but are feelings or emotions.
• eg Honesty, Freedom, Love

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

• Replace specific people or things
• Examples I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them

Possessive Pronouns

• Indicate possession or ownership.
• Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.

Demonstrative Pronouns

• Point out a specific person, place, thing, or idea.
• Examples: this, that, these, those.

Direct/Indirect Speech

Direct Speech

• Exact words someone said are called direct speech.
• The speech appears in quotation marks "..." and is word for word.

Indirect Speech

• Reports what someone said in your own words.
• No quotation marks are used.
• Adjustments needed, as you did not actually say the word.

Auxiliary Verbs

• Are, is, and am

Figures of Speech

• Used in writing to make more creative.
• Create a picture for the reader.

Simile

• Comparison of two different things that have something in common
• Uses 'as' or 'like'
• e.g., I slept like a dog.

Metaphor

• Indirect comparison of two different things without 'like' or 'as'.
• e.g., He is lion-hearted.

Personification

• Human qualities given to non-human things.
• e.g., The sun rose from his bed.

Onomatopoeia

• Word that suggests/imitates a sound.
• e.g., the buzzing of bees.

Alliteration

• Repetition of the same consonants in two or more words.
• e.g., The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew.

Assonance

• Repetition of the same vowel sound in two or more words.
• e.g., The main lane was closed.

Hyperbole

• Used to emphasize by Exaggeration.
• e.g., There were millions of people at church.

Pun

• Used to add humour and create double meaning in a sentence.
• e.g., Can a leopard change his spots? Yes, when he moves from one spot to another.

Oxymoron

• Combination of opposite/contradictory words.
• e.g., Bitter sweet love; Tormenting joy.

Irony

• When the opposite of what is expected to occur happens.
• Example: Man leaving South Africa to escape violence and is shot dead at Heathrow Airport.