Identifying Assumptions in Arguments

Identifying Assumptions and Implicit Arguments

• Arguments often rely on unstated assumptions and subtle methods of persuasion
• Premises might contain implicit assumptions or incorrect information
• Unsound premises can cause an argument to fail, even if it is well-presented
• Considering the premises of an argument is as important as considering the reasoning

Assumptions: The Building Blocks of Arguments

• Assumptions refer to anything taken for granted when presenting an argument
• These may be unstated facts, ideas, or beliefs that support the argument
• Without assumptions, the conclusion may not be possible
• Most arguments contain assumptions or require inferences to save time and simplify the argument
• The author assumes the audience will understand and agree with the intended meaning

Example: Holidays and Oil Slicks

• The conclusion is that thousands of people's holidays will be ruined
• Assumption 1: Holidays are for relaxation and enjoyment, contrasting with the original 'holy days'
• Assumption 2: Holiday-makers will want to go to the beach
• Assumption 3: Holiday-makers who go to the beach will not like oil on the beach
• Assumption 4: Oil on the beach can ruin a holiday
• Assumption 5: The audience understands "holiday," "beach," and "oil slick"

Context Matters

• Identifying reasonable assumptions depends on the context
• Consider the intended audience, their shared assumptions, and background knowledge
• An article about oil on the beach in a book for ESL learners requires more explanation

Implications for Writing

• Indicate the underlying assumptions in an assignment or report
• Define terminology that may have multiple interpretations
• More clarification may be needed if the assignment is for non-experts
• Do not waste time clarifying what is obvious or uncontroversial

Identifying Hidden Assumptions

• Identifying assumptions underlying an argument helps in understanding and evaluating the overall argument
• Implicit assumptions are sometimes used carelessly to support a conclusion leading to invalid arguments

Example 1: Holiday Compensation

• Holidays are a time to recoup from stresses with family
• Assumption of entitlement to compensation for stress caused by a "spoiled" holiday
• Holidays should be free of stress.
• Compensation should be provided if there is stress during a holiday

Non-Sequiturs

• 'Non-sequitur' means 'doesn't follow on'
• There must be a hidden assumption when a conclusion seems to appear from nowhere
• Example:
  • Prison populations are rising
  • Prisons are overcrowded
  • Rehabilitation is a better option
• Analysis: Overcrowded prisons do not provide information about the virtues of rehabilitation versus time in prisons
• A conclusion of "rehabilitation is a better option" is a non-sequitur

Implicit Assumptions as Reasons

• Check for implicit assumptions by looking for argument gaps, finding their links, and if the conclusion is supported by the missing assumptions

Example: Students with Disabilities

• Students with disabilities have an unfair advantage during exams
• Reason 1: More time in examinations means finishing last questions with less hurry
• Reason 2: Less hurry leads to better marks
• Reason 3: Students with disabilities can claim additional time
• Implicit assumption: Students with disabilities use extra time to complete final questions with less hurry
• Overlooked are the effects of coping with a disability (pain, translation for deaf, etc.)

Inference, Assumption, and Syllogism

• Inference fills in missing argument steps, also known as deductive logic
• Inference connects evidence and conclusions with strong evidence supporting reasoning
• Alternative conclusions are unlikely
• Assumptions lack strong evidence, with other conclusions being just as likely

Example 1: Shop Queue

• A sale starts and customers arrive at the shop
• Queue appears before opening
• Customers arrived early for the sale
• Analysis: Deduction is a reasonable logical inference
• It might be possible, if the manager arrives late, staff await their arrival

Bias and Inference

• Inferences based on evidence can reveal prejudices
• What is obvious to one person might not be to another
• Example 2:
  • There was corruption in the department
  • John Ames is Head of that Department
  • John Ames must have corruption
• Analysis: Whether or not it is a valid logical inference based on context and beliefs
• Managers should know of corruption amongst staff
• Or managers should not know of every activity from staff

Syllogism

• Syllogisms are rare arguments when a logical inference is used to draw a conclusion from evidence
• No room for assumptions because the evidence is complete
• Example 3:
  • Socrates is a man
  • All men are mortal
  • Therefore, Socrates is mortal
• Analysis: Logical to infer that Socrates is mortal with no room for assumptions involved

False Premises

• An argument is based on reasons supporting conclusions, beliefs, theories, and assumptions
• Known as "premises," arguments are "predicated" (based) on these premises

Building Arguments

• Premises act as the foundation for an argument
• Poorly-founded premises can cause the argument to fail
• Incorrect underlying assumptions lead to arguments that are based, or predicated, on false premises and needing knowledge for recognizing false premises

Explicit vs. Implicit Arguments

• Explicit arguments follow recognizable structures
• Implicit arguments might lack:
  • Obvious reasoning
  • Stated conclusions
  • Apparent persuasion attempts

Why Use Implicit Arguments?

• Arguments can be more powerful to persuade an audience
• Explicit arguments are likely to be closely analyzed
• Implicit arguments encourage the audience to draw their own conclusions

Use Cases for Implicit Arguments

• Catching someone unawares or persuasion at an unconscious level (e.g., advertising)
• Persuading someone to do something they don't want to
• Planting an idea subtly
• Threatening others or implying threatening circumstances
• Criticizing others indirectly
• Suggesting a consequence to mislead the audience

Example: "Huge Cash Prizes!"

• Message: Number selected out of 3.4 million entries to win one of the cash prizes
• The implicit argument assumes the recipient has won a large prize (over a million pounds)
• Message does not state the recipient has been selected as a winner, this can turn into a number into a draw
• Many respond, paying more in phone bills than any potential prize

Ideological Assumptions

• An implicit argument can reflect societal beliefs or ideology
• Societal blind spots can cause a barrier to identify hidden assumptions -Cultural and media studies analyzes in revealing hidden assumptions

Denoted Meanings

• The denoted meaning is the explicit literal obvious meaning

Connoted Meanings

• Arguments containing latent messages can convince points of views
• Messages may act on the unconscious level
• Arguments need to be aware when it sounds convincing due to connotations instead of reasoning
• Connotations can add effectiveness when persuading
• Identify and be aware to agree on what is the underlying point