Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary process involved in putting information into memory?
What is the primary process involved in putting information into memory?
Which level of processing is characterized as shallow encoding in memory?
Which level of processing is characterized as shallow encoding in memory?
How does sleep contribute to memory consolidation?
How does sleep contribute to memory consolidation?
What is the primary function of sensory memory?
What is the primary function of sensory memory?
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Which of the following best describes the serial position effect?
Which of the following best describes the serial position effect?
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What supports longer-lasting memory codes according to levels of processing?
What supports longer-lasting memory codes according to levels of processing?
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What role do retrieval cues play in memory?
What role do retrieval cues play in memory?
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Which of the following best describes self-referent encoding?
Which of the following best describes self-referent encoding?
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What is a common error associated with memory illusions?
What is a common error associated with memory illusions?
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In the context of short-term memory, what is its primary distinction from sensory memory?
In the context of short-term memory, what is its primary distinction from sensory memory?
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What is the standard model of memory retrieval?
What is the standard model of memory retrieval?
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What is iconic memory primarily associated with?
What is iconic memory primarily associated with?
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Which factor is critical for the process of encoding information into memory?
Which factor is critical for the process of encoding information into memory?
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How did George Sperling demonstrate the properties of sensory memory?
How did George Sperling demonstrate the properties of sensory memory?
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What aspect of memory does the representative heuristic affect?
What aspect of memory does the representative heuristic affect?
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What determines whether information from sensory memory will be lost or transferred to short-term memory?
What determines whether information from sensory memory will be lost or transferred to short-term memory?
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What is the primary benefit of sleep on memory retention?
What is the primary benefit of sleep on memory retention?
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Which brain region is primarily involved in the retrieval of recently consolidated memories after sleep?
Which brain region is primarily involved in the retrieval of recently consolidated memories after sleep?
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What is the primary function of retrieval cues?
What is the primary function of retrieval cues?
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Which type of processing is least likely to result in long-term retention of information?
Which type of processing is least likely to result in long-term retention of information?
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What does the recency effect demonstrate about memory recall?
What does the recency effect demonstrate about memory recall?
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What phenomenon describes a person's better recall of distinctive or unusual items in a list?
What phenomenon describes a person's better recall of distinctive or unusual items in a list?
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Which memory process is primarily affected by the intensity of initial processing?
Which memory process is primarily affected by the intensity of initial processing?
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How do slow, deep NREM brainwaves contribute to memory consolidation?
How do slow, deep NREM brainwaves contribute to memory consolidation?
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Study Notes
Memory
- Memory is the retention of information over time.
- Memories are central to self-concept and functioning in the world.
- Memory is increasingly linked to performance in academics and the job market.
Paradox of Memory
- Memories are surprisingly good in many situations, like knowing how to get to work.
- Memories are surprisingly bad in other situations, such as remembering people's names.
- Humans remember vast amounts of information, like the lyrics to many songs.
- There is significant individual variability in memory abilities.
Class Activity
- A list of words will be displayed.
- Students are to read the words, moving left to right across the columns.
- Students should not read aloud or discuss the words with classmates.
- Students are ready?
Paradox of Memory (Memory Illusion)
- Remembering words not on a list is a memory illusion.
- The brain goes beyond available information to make sense of the world.
- A representative heuristic is used, which is adaptive but can lead to errors.
Reconstructive Memory
- Memories are actively reconstructed, not passively reproduced.
- Students should close their eyes and try to recall a childhood birthday party.
- Students should describe their memory of the party.
- Consider if the memory is similar to a photo (observer) or if you were experiencing the world (field).
Human Memory: Basic Questions
- How does information get into memory?
- How is information maintained in memory?
- How is information pulled back out of memory?
- Encoding, storage, and retrieval are key memory processes.
Human Memory: Computer Analogy
- Encoding is like initial recording of information.
- Storage is like saving information for future use.
- Retrieval is like recovering stored information.
- This analogy is considered imperfect by memory experts.
Encoding
- Attention is necessary to encode information.
- Most experiences are not encoded due to cognitive limitations.
- Focus and selection of input are key to attention (e.g., selective attention and the cocktail party effect).
- Divided attention was also discussed as a factor, influencing encoding.
Models of Selective Attention
- Early selection models filter input before processing meaning.
- Late selection models filter input after processing meaning.
- Evidence suggests that the filtering stage can shift between these extremes.
- Different models and locations of the attentional filter were reviewed.
Activity (Unfamiliar Language Words)
- Words from unfamiliar languages will be displayed.
- Students should devise a memory strategy for remembering the word without writing it down.
- Thirty-second word exposures are planned.
Levels of Processing (Craik and Lockhart)
- Incoming information is processed at different levels.
- Deeper processing leads to more durable memory codes.
- Encoding levels are distinguished by depth, ranging from structural (shallow) to semantic (deep).
- Structural encoding is shallow, Emphasizing physical aspect.
- Phonemic encoding is intermediate, Emphasizing sound aspect.
- Semantic encoding is deep, Emphasizing meaning aspect..
Enriching Encoding
- Elaboration: Linking stimulus to other information during encoding.
- Visual imagery: Creating visual images to represent words.
- Self-referent encoding: Making information personally meaningful.
Memory Storage
- Discussing what is stored in memory and how long it stays there was discussed.
Atkinson & Shiffrin Storage Model
A model depicting memory as a system with stages:
- Sensory Memory: Sight (iconic), Sound (echoic), Other sensory memories, Forgetting typically within 1 second.
- Short-term Memory: Repetitive rehearsal, Forgetting typically within 15-25 seconds.
- Long-term Memory: Elaborative rehearsal, Long term memory retention.
Sensory Memory
- First memory system, holding information from the world around us.
- Each sensory modality has its own sensory memory (e.g., iconic for vision).
- Sensory memory is characterized as highly precise, short-term storage of the physical stimulus.
- Iconic memory (visual) lasts about 1/20th of a second, while echoic memory (auditory) lasts about 2-3 seconds.
Iconic Memory (Sperling)
- A classic experiment by Sperling examined the duration of iconic memory; participants briefly saw a visual display of letters.
- A tone cue identified a row for reporting, showing they had stored all the letters, but faded rapidly.
- Memory researchers investigated the implications of the tone delay on participant recall accuracy.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
- STM transforms raw sensory stimuli into meaningful information.
- How this occurs is still unclear, but it considers graphical representations (images) and words, as possible steps.
- STM is detailed, but short-lived (without rehearsal).
- STM = short in span and duration without rehearsal.
Miller (1956): Magic Number 7
- STM holds approximately 7 ± 2 pieces of information.
- Chunking increases STM capacity by organizing information into meaningful units.
- Chunking can improve information retention.
Peterson & Peterson STM Studies
- Studied the duration of STM using three letters and three-digit numbers.
- Rehearsal was prevented through counting backward; recall accuracy declined rapidly without rehearsal.
- The researcher explored how brief memory intervals, of 3 or 18 seconds, affected the participants' memory recall capacity.
Rehearsal
- Rehearsal is the key process in transferring information from STM to LTM.
- Maintenance rehearsal simply repeats information maintaining it in STM but not necessarily transferring it to LTM.
- Elaborative rehearsal links new information to existing knowledge, improving the encoding and storage process in LTM.
- Mnemonics are formal techniques for organizing information to improve the likelihood of remembering.
Mnemonics
- Formal techniques to organize information, improving memorization.
- Acronyms, acrostics, method of loci, songs, and rhymes are examples of mnemonic devices.
- Chunking, associating ideas with existing memories are also discussed as memory strategies.
Working Memory Debates
- STM is more active than a passive store; it actively manages information from sensory memory and LTM.
- Working memory actively uses and manipulates information, making it available for cognitive tasks.
Working Memory: Central Executive Processor
- Set of active, temporary memory stores, actively manipulating and rehearsing information.
- Features a central executive processor involved in reasoning and decision-making, and coordinates three distinct storage/rehearsal systems.
- Components include visual, verbal store, and an episodic buffer.
Working Memory as an Active Workspace
- Working memory allows us to keep information in an active state, manipulating and rehearsing it for use.
- Information is kept in an active state; available for use in the short-term, while coordinated by the central executive.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- A vast store of facts, experiences, and skills.
- LTM capacity is potentially unlimited.
- Distinction between STM and LTM is evident from neuropsychological studies.
- Brain study data confirms the distinction.
Long-Term Memory Modules
- Memory modules are separate systems in the brain processing different types of memory.
- Declarative memory holds factual information (names, dates, etc.), divided into semantic and episodic subcategories.
- Semantic memory deals with general knowledge and facts about the world.
- Episodic memory concerns specific events and personal experiences.
- Non-declarative memory (procedural) focuses on skills and habits.
Types of Long-Term Memory
- Semantic memory: knowing what something is (e.g., recalling what a bicycle is).
- Episodic memory: remembering when and where something happened (e.g., when you learned to ride a bicycle).
- Procedural memory: knowing how to do something (e.g., knowing how to ride a bicycle).
Oral History and Storytelling: Collective Episodic Memory
- Indigenous cultures use oral traditions for historical knowledge transmission.
- Oral histories use dramatic storytelling alongside gestures, vocal modulations, and audience reactions, contributing to a memorable and vital experience.
- Oral histories are important for Indigenous communities, and this distinction helps in recalling historical events, and perhaps for survival.
Semantic Networks
- Mental networks of interconnected information (e.g., concepts and their relationships).
- Stronger associations mean concepts are closely linked, and activating one concept triggers related concepts.
The Neuroscience of Memory
- Hippocampus plays a central role in memory consolidation (encoding).
- Amygdala is key for emotions associated with memories, such as trauma and phobias.
The Biochemistry of Memory
- Memory involves long-term potentiation (LTP), changes in neuronal pathways/synaptic strength, strengthening connections upon repeated use or learning.
- Memory consolidation involves stabilizing memories for long-term storage by strengthening the neural pathways.
- Different parts of the brain are involved in processing different sensory inputs of memory.
- Ultimately, memory traces are distributed throughout the brain.
The Role of Sleep
- Sleep helps cement newly learned information and prevents forgetting.
- Memory benefits considerably from deep NREM sleep (early in sleep cycles).
- Deep sleep facilitates movement of information from short-term to long-term memory.
Retrieval
- Retrieving information from memory involves giving it back.
- Retrieval cues activate relevant information from long-term storage.
Retrieval Cues
- A retrieval cue is any stimulus (sound, word, image, etc.) that helps recall information.
- Memories are often more easily recalled with retrieval cues;
- Retrieval cues are especially important for recall.
Recall: Levels of Processing
- Deeper processing during learning improves recall.
- Shallow processing (physical features) leads to poorer recall.
- Memory is most effectively retained when the information's meaning is truly understood and processed.
Primary, Recency, & von Restorff Effects
- Serial position effect means the probability of recalling information depends on its position in a list.
- Primacy effect: improved recall of items at the beginning of a list.
- Recency effect: improved recall of items at the end of a list.
- Von Restorff effect: greater recall of distinctive stimuli in a list.
Interpreting the Results
- Primacy effect: Participants typically remember the first few words in a listed item.
- Recency effect: Participants might remember the latter few words in the list, especially on very short lists of items.
Visualizing the Serial Position Curve
- Graph depicting the relative recall of items in a sequence where items presented at the beginning (primacy) and at the end (recency) are better remembered than those in the middle.
Explicit and Implicit Memory
- Explicit memories are consciously recalled.
- Implicit memories affect behavior without conscious awareness (e.g., riding a bike).
Priming
- Priming is an effect where previously encountered information, or concepts, make it easier to retrieve related information later.
- It leads to easier retrieval of related information.
Flashbulb Memories
- Vivid memories of emotionally significant or surprising events.
- Although vivid, these memories may not be completely accurate.
- Flashbulb memories are not detailed, and are notably inacurate.
Forgetting
- Forgetting refers to memory lapses.
- Forgetting can have adaptive functions
- The reasons for, or why we forget, was covered.
Forgetting: A Useful Adaptation?
- Forgetting frees up space in memory and reduces competition, decreasing confusion.
- The adaptive value differs based on where and what is forgotten.
Ebbinghaus Nonsense Syllables
- Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to study forgetting over time.
- Forgetting was rapid initially, then slowed, then plateaued.
- This data is used to determine the retention curve for information.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
- Shows early rapid forgetting followed by slower rates over long time periods, or memory decay.
- This shows retention decline (amount of information we remember) over time
Why Do We Forget
- Failure of encoding (Lack of attention)
- Decay (Loss of information from non-use)
- Interference (Competing information)
Types of Interference
- Proactive interference: old information hindering learning of new information.
- Retroactive interference: later information hindering recall of earlier learned material.
Memory Dysfunctions: Alzheimer's Disease
- Progressive brain disorder resulting in gradual, irreversible cognitive decline.
- Early symptoms include simple forgetfulness; the disease can lead to profound memory loss and physical deterioration.
- Genetic factors, such as mutations to the Beta Amyloid protein, can contribute to Alzheimer's disease.
Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting
- Prevalence and incidence of diagnosed dementia, including Alzheimer's disease, among Canadians aged 65 and older were reviewed from research data.
- The prevalence and incidence of dementia varied by age groups, with higher rates observed in older age brackets.
Memory Dysfunctions: Amnesia
- Amnesia is memory loss without other cognitive problems.
- Retrograde amnesia covers the loss of memories prior to a specific event (e.g., injury).
- Anterograde amnesia describes memory loss that follows an event.
- Information cannot be transferred to long-term memory.
Constructive Processes in Memory
- Bartlett argued that memory is a constructive process, influenced by existing knowledge structures (schemas).
- Memories are reconstructions rather than perfect reproductions.
- Reconstructed memories contain contextual influences, expectations, and motivations.
- Memory reconstructions are subjective and influenced by prior experiences.
Dr. Loftus TED Talk
- Dr. Loftus shared insights into memory reliability through a TED talk, where she highlighted the importance of carefully remembering information for court cases, etc..
Dr. Elizabeth Loftus: Misinformation Effect
- Eyewitness testimonies can be prone to biases, particularly when influenced by questions or information presented after events.
- Leading questions (e.g., using "smash" rather than "hit" in questions) during questioning can distort memory recall.
Repressed And False Memories
- Memories can be hidden, but this notion is debated critically, with some suggesting their emergence may have external origins.
Memory in the Courtroom: Eyewitness on Trial
- Constructed memories can lead to mistaken identities and legal errors.
- Eyewitness testimony, even with high confidence, is not always reliable.
- Factors such as weapon focus (attending primarily to the weapon) can impact accuracy.
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