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Questions and Answers

What is the primary process involved in putting information into memory?

  • Encoding (correct)
  • Retrieval
  • Storage
  • Recollection
  • Which level of processing is characterized as shallow encoding in memory?

  • Phonemic
  • Structural (correct)
  • Contextual
  • Semantic
  • How does sleep contribute to memory consolidation?

  • It only affects short-term memory.
  • It helps in the storage of information by strengthening neural connections. (correct)
  • It prevents retrieval of memories formed during wakefulness.
  • It halts all brain activity, preserving memory.
  • What is the primary function of sensory memory?

    <p>To store precise but brief representations of stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the serial position effect?

    <p>The phenomenon of remembering the first and last items of a list better than the middle items.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What supports longer-lasting memory codes according to levels of processing?

    <p>Deeper processing that involves semantic encoding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do retrieval cues play in memory?

    <p>They assist in locating stored information and bringing it into awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes self-referent encoding?

    <p>Linking new information to personal experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common error associated with memory illusions?

    <p>Remembering information that was not actually presented.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of short-term memory, what is its primary distinction from sensory memory?

    <p>It provides detailed representations with meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the standard model of memory retrieval?

    <p>It involves actively reconstructing memories rather than directly reproducing them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is iconic memory primarily associated with?

    <p>Brief visual stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is critical for the process of encoding information into memory?

    <p>Attention to the information being encoded.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did George Sperling demonstrate the properties of sensory memory?

    <p>By using tonal signals to prompt recall of rows</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of memory does the representative heuristic affect?

    <p>The likelihood of memory illusions occurring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines whether information from sensory memory will be lost or transferred to short-term memory?

    <p>The focused attention given to the stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of sleep on memory retention?

    <p>It provides a 20-40% increase in memory retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is primarily involved in the retrieval of recently consolidated memories after sleep?

    <p>Cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of retrieval cues?

    <p>They assist in recalling information already in long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of processing is least likely to result in long-term retention of information?

    <p>Shallow processing focusing on physical characteristics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the recency effect demonstrate about memory recall?

    <p>Items at the end of a list are recalled most effectively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes a person's better recall of distinctive or unusual items in a list?

    <p>Von Restorff effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which memory process is primarily affected by the intensity of initial processing?

    <p>Accessibility of memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do slow, deep NREM brainwaves contribute to memory consolidation?

    <p>They serve as a communication mechanism between different memory regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Memory

    • Memory is the retention of information over time.
    • Memories are central to self-concept and functioning in the world.
    • Memory is increasingly linked to performance in academics and the job market.

    Paradox of Memory

    • Memories are surprisingly good in many situations, like knowing how to get to work.
    • Memories are surprisingly bad in other situations, such as remembering people's names.
    • Humans remember vast amounts of information, like the lyrics to many songs.
    • There is significant individual variability in memory abilities.

    Class Activity

    • A list of words will be displayed.
    • Students are to read the words, moving left to right across the columns.
    • Students should not read aloud or discuss the words with classmates.
    • Students are ready?

    Paradox of Memory (Memory Illusion)

    • Remembering words not on a list is a memory illusion.
    • The brain goes beyond available information to make sense of the world.
    • A representative heuristic is used, which is adaptive but can lead to errors.

    Reconstructive Memory

    • Memories are actively reconstructed, not passively reproduced.
    • Students should close their eyes and try to recall a childhood birthday party.
    • Students should describe their memory of the party.
    • Consider if the memory is similar to a photo (observer) or if you were experiencing the world (field).

    Human Memory: Basic Questions

    • How does information get into memory?
    • How is information maintained in memory?
    • How is information pulled back out of memory?
    • Encoding, storage, and retrieval are key memory processes.

    Human Memory: Computer Analogy

    • Encoding is like initial recording of information.
    • Storage is like saving information for future use.
    • Retrieval is like recovering stored information.
    • This analogy is considered imperfect by memory experts.

    Encoding

    • Attention is necessary to encode information.
    • Most experiences are not encoded due to cognitive limitations.
    • Focus and selection of input are key to attention (e.g., selective attention and the cocktail party effect).
    • Divided attention was also discussed as a factor, influencing encoding.

    Models of Selective Attention

    • Early selection models filter input before processing meaning.
    • Late selection models filter input after processing meaning.
    • Evidence suggests that the filtering stage can shift between these extremes.
    • Different models and locations of the attentional filter were reviewed.

    Activity (Unfamiliar Language Words)

    • Words from unfamiliar languages will be displayed.
    • Students should devise a memory strategy for remembering the word without writing it down.
    • Thirty-second word exposures are planned.

    Levels of Processing (Craik and Lockhart)

    • Incoming information is processed at different levels.
    • Deeper processing leads to more durable memory codes.
    • Encoding levels are distinguished by depth, ranging from structural (shallow) to semantic (deep).
    • Structural encoding is shallow, Emphasizing physical aspect.
    • Phonemic encoding is intermediate, Emphasizing sound aspect.
    • Semantic encoding is deep, Emphasizing meaning aspect..

    Enriching Encoding

    • Elaboration: Linking stimulus to other information during encoding.
    • Visual imagery: Creating visual images to represent words.
    • Self-referent encoding: Making information personally meaningful.

    Memory Storage

    • Discussing what is stored in memory and how long it stays there was discussed.

    Atkinson & Shiffrin Storage Model

    A model depicting memory as a system with stages:

    • Sensory Memory: Sight (iconic), Sound (echoic), Other sensory memories, Forgetting typically within 1 second.
    • Short-term Memory: Repetitive rehearsal, Forgetting typically within 15-25 seconds.
    • Long-term Memory: Elaborative rehearsal, Long term memory retention.

    Sensory Memory

    • First memory system, holding information from the world around us.
    • Each sensory modality has its own sensory memory (e.g., iconic for vision).
    • Sensory memory is characterized as highly precise, short-term storage of the physical stimulus.
    • Iconic memory (visual) lasts about 1/20th of a second, while echoic memory (auditory) lasts about 2-3 seconds.

    Iconic Memory (Sperling)

    • A classic experiment by Sperling examined the duration of iconic memory; participants briefly saw a visual display of letters.
    • A tone cue identified a row for reporting, showing they had stored all the letters, but faded rapidly.
    • Memory researchers investigated the implications of the tone delay on participant recall accuracy.

    Short-Term Memory (STM)

    • STM transforms raw sensory stimuli into meaningful information.
    • How this occurs is still unclear, but it considers graphical representations (images) and words, as possible steps.
    • STM is detailed, but short-lived (without rehearsal).
    • STM = short in span and duration without rehearsal.

    Miller (1956): Magic Number 7

    • STM holds approximately 7 ± 2 pieces of information.
    • Chunking increases STM capacity by organizing information into meaningful units.
    • Chunking can improve information retention.

    Peterson & Peterson STM Studies

    • Studied the duration of STM using three letters and three-digit numbers.
    • Rehearsal was prevented through counting backward; recall accuracy declined rapidly without rehearsal.
    • The researcher explored how brief memory intervals, of 3 or 18 seconds, affected the participants' memory recall capacity.

    Rehearsal

    • Rehearsal is the key process in transferring information from STM to LTM.
    • Maintenance rehearsal simply repeats information maintaining it in STM but not necessarily transferring it to LTM.
    • Elaborative rehearsal links new information to existing knowledge, improving the encoding and storage process in LTM.
    • Mnemonics are formal techniques for organizing information to improve the likelihood of remembering.

    Mnemonics

    • Formal techniques to organize information, improving memorization.
    • Acronyms, acrostics, method of loci, songs, and rhymes are examples of mnemonic devices.
    • Chunking, associating ideas with existing memories are also discussed as memory strategies.

    Working Memory Debates

    • STM is more active than a passive store; it actively manages information from sensory memory and LTM.
    • Working memory actively uses and manipulates information, making it available for cognitive tasks.

    Working Memory: Central Executive Processor

    • Set of active, temporary memory stores, actively manipulating and rehearsing information.
    • Features a central executive processor involved in reasoning and decision-making, and coordinates three distinct storage/rehearsal systems.
    • Components include visual, verbal store, and an episodic buffer.

    Working Memory as an Active Workspace

    • Working memory allows us to keep information in an active state, manipulating and rehearsing it for use.
    • Information is kept in an active state; available for use in the short-term, while coordinated by the central executive.

    Long-Term Memory (LTM)

    • A vast store of facts, experiences, and skills.
    • LTM capacity is potentially unlimited.
    • Distinction between STM and LTM is evident from neuropsychological studies.
    • Brain study data confirms the distinction.

    Long-Term Memory Modules

    • Memory modules are separate systems in the brain processing different types of memory.
    • Declarative memory holds factual information (names, dates, etc.), divided into semantic and episodic subcategories.
    • Semantic memory deals with general knowledge and facts about the world.
    • Episodic memory concerns specific events and personal experiences.
    • Non-declarative memory (procedural) focuses on skills and habits.

    Types of Long-Term Memory

    • Semantic memory: knowing what something is (e.g., recalling what a bicycle is).
    • Episodic memory: remembering when and where something happened (e.g., when you learned to ride a bicycle).
    • Procedural memory: knowing how to do something (e.g., knowing how to ride a bicycle).

    Oral History and Storytelling: Collective Episodic Memory

    • Indigenous cultures use oral traditions for historical knowledge transmission.
    • Oral histories use dramatic storytelling alongside gestures, vocal modulations, and audience reactions, contributing to a memorable and vital experience.
    • Oral histories are important for Indigenous communities, and this distinction helps in recalling historical events, and perhaps for survival.

    Semantic Networks

    • Mental networks of interconnected information (e.g., concepts and their relationships).
    • Stronger associations mean concepts are closely linked, and activating one concept triggers related concepts.

    The Neuroscience of Memory

    • Hippocampus plays a central role in memory consolidation (encoding).
    • Amygdala is key for emotions associated with memories, such as trauma and phobias.

    The Biochemistry of Memory

    • Memory involves long-term potentiation (LTP), changes in neuronal pathways/synaptic strength, strengthening connections upon repeated use or learning.
    • Memory consolidation involves stabilizing memories for long-term storage by strengthening the neural pathways.
    • Different parts of the brain are involved in processing different sensory inputs of memory.
    • Ultimately, memory traces are distributed throughout the brain.

    The Role of Sleep

    • Sleep helps cement newly learned information and prevents forgetting.
    • Memory benefits considerably from deep NREM sleep (early in sleep cycles).
    • Deep sleep facilitates movement of information from short-term to long-term memory.

    Retrieval

    • Retrieving information from memory involves giving it back.
    • Retrieval cues activate relevant information from long-term storage.

    Retrieval Cues

    • A retrieval cue is any stimulus (sound, word, image, etc.) that helps recall information.
    • Memories are often more easily recalled with retrieval cues;
    • Retrieval cues are especially important for recall.

    Recall: Levels of Processing

    • Deeper processing during learning improves recall.
    • Shallow processing (physical features) leads to poorer recall.
    • Memory is most effectively retained when the information's meaning is truly understood and processed.

    Primary, Recency, & von Restorff Effects

    • Serial position effect means the probability of recalling information depends on its position in a list.
    • Primacy effect: improved recall of items at the beginning of a list.
    • Recency effect: improved recall of items at the end of a list.
    • Von Restorff effect: greater recall of distinctive stimuli in a list.

    Interpreting the Results

    • Primacy effect: Participants typically remember the first few words in a listed item.
    • Recency effect: Participants might remember the latter few words in the list, especially on very short lists of items.

    Visualizing the Serial Position Curve

    • Graph depicting the relative recall of items in a sequence where items presented at the beginning (primacy) and at the end (recency) are better remembered than those in the middle.

    Explicit and Implicit Memory

    • Explicit memories are consciously recalled.
    • Implicit memories affect behavior without conscious awareness (e.g., riding a bike).

    Priming

    • Priming is an effect where previously encountered information, or concepts, make it easier to retrieve related information later.
    • It leads to easier retrieval of related information.

    Flashbulb Memories

    • Vivid memories of emotionally significant or surprising events.
    • Although vivid, these memories may not be completely accurate.
    • Flashbulb memories are not detailed, and are notably inacurate.

    Forgetting

    • Forgetting refers to memory lapses.
    • Forgetting can have adaptive functions
    • The reasons for, or why we forget, was covered.

    Forgetting: A Useful Adaptation?

    • Forgetting frees up space in memory and reduces competition, decreasing confusion.
    • The adaptive value differs based on where and what is forgotten.

    Ebbinghaus Nonsense Syllables

    • Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to study forgetting over time.
    • Forgetting was rapid initially, then slowed, then plateaued.
    • This data is used to determine the retention curve for information.

    Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

    • Shows early rapid forgetting followed by slower rates over long time periods, or memory decay.
    • This shows retention decline (amount of information we remember) over time

    Why Do We Forget

    • Failure of encoding (Lack of attention)
    • Decay (Loss of information from non-use)
    • Interference (Competing information)

    Types of Interference

    • Proactive interference: old information hindering learning of new information.
    • Retroactive interference: later information hindering recall of earlier learned material.

    Memory Dysfunctions: Alzheimer's Disease

    • Progressive brain disorder resulting in gradual, irreversible cognitive decline.
    • Early symptoms include simple forgetfulness; the disease can lead to profound memory loss and physical deterioration.
    • Genetic factors, such as mutations to the Beta Amyloid protein, can contribute to Alzheimer's disease.

    Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting

    • Prevalence and incidence of diagnosed dementia, including Alzheimer's disease, among Canadians aged 65 and older were reviewed from research data.
    • The prevalence and incidence of dementia varied by age groups, with higher rates observed in older age brackets.

    Memory Dysfunctions: Amnesia

    • Amnesia is memory loss without other cognitive problems.
    • Retrograde amnesia covers the loss of memories prior to a specific event (e.g., injury).
    • Anterograde amnesia describes memory loss that follows an event.
    • Information cannot be transferred to long-term memory.

    Constructive Processes in Memory

    • Bartlett argued that memory is a constructive process, influenced by existing knowledge structures (schemas).
    • Memories are reconstructions rather than perfect reproductions.
    • Reconstructed memories contain contextual influences, expectations, and motivations.
    • Memory reconstructions are subjective and influenced by prior experiences.

    Dr. Loftus TED Talk

    • Dr. Loftus shared insights into memory reliability through a TED talk, where she highlighted the importance of carefully remembering information for court cases, etc..

    Dr. Elizabeth Loftus: Misinformation Effect

    • Eyewitness testimonies can be prone to biases, particularly when influenced by questions or information presented after events.
    • Leading questions (e.g., using "smash" rather than "hit" in questions) during questioning can distort memory recall.

    Repressed And False Memories

    • Memories can be hidden, but this notion is debated critically, with some suggesting their emergence may have external origins.

    Memory in the Courtroom: Eyewitness on Trial

    • Constructed memories can lead to mistaken identities and legal errors.
    • Eyewitness testimony, even with high confidence, is not always reliable.
    • Factors such as weapon focus (attending primarily to the weapon) can impact accuracy.

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