Hydrogen Fuel and Its Properties

Hydrogen Production and Hazards

• Hydrogen is produced from water primarily through electrolysis, a process that uses electricity to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Hydrogen is hazardous as a fuel due to its flammability and the potential for explosive mixtures in air.
• Steam methane reforming (SMR) is traditionally preferred over electrolysis because it is currently more cost-effective and efficient for large-scale hydrogen production.

Hydrogen as a Vehicle Fuel

• The main challenge in using hydrogen as a fuel for vehicles is the lack of infrastructure for distribution and refueling stations.
• A fuel cell converts chemical energy from hydrogen into electricity, emitting only water vapor as a byproduct.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

• OTEC utilizes the temperature difference between warmer surface water and colder deep water to generate energy.
• Developed in the 1970s, OTEC employs a working fluid with a low boiling point, like ammonia, in closed cycle systems.
• The heat exchanger in OTEC transfers thermal energy between warm and cold fluids to facilitate energy generation.
• Open cycle OTEC systems can produce fresh water as a byproduct, taking advantage of the low pressure used to vaporize warm seawater.

Tides and Turbines

• The least difference between high and low tides is known as neap tide.
• Turbines that can be mounted both vertically and horizontally include Kaplan and Francis turbines.
• Tides interfered with by continents are referred to as channel tides, affected by landmass configurations.

Wind Energy

• Convection currents in the atmosphere are generated by uneven heating from the sun, resulting in wind formation.
• An estimated 1,500 terawatts of wind energy are available over the Earth's surface.
• Wind energy is considered renewable energy, as it derives from natural atmospheric movements.
• Turbines in wind farms convert kinetic energy from wind into electrical energy.
• A typical wind turbine generates electricity at wind speeds between 10 to 25 mph.

Disaster Management and Preparedness

• Disaster management is essential for effectively responding to and recovering from disasters.
• The primary purpose of disaster management is to minimize the impact of disasters on communities.
• The first step in preparedness planning involves risk assessment and identifying potential hazards.
• Tsunami detectors are typically placed about 100 miles (160 km) from shore to detect undersea seismic activity.

International Agreements and Initiatives

• A legally binding environmental agreement between nations is called a treaty.
• The United Nations runs the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) program, focusing on global sustainability.
• A minimum of 80 points is required for gold certification under the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) standard.
• Climate change is recognized as a significant global-scale environmental issue impacting ecosystems and societies.