Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for type 2 diabetes?
Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for type 2 diabetes?
What is the term used for an individual who inherits two different versions of the same gene?
What is the term used for an individual who inherits two different versions of the same gene?
In autosomal recessive inheritance, when will a condition manifest?
In autosomal recessive inheritance, when will a condition manifest?
Which genetic term describes the observable characteristics of an organism?
Which genetic term describes the observable characteristics of an organism?
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What are alleles?
What are alleles?
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What is the term for the volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of atrial contraction?
What is the term for the volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of atrial contraction?
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Which complex on an electrocardiogram (ECG) is associated with isovolumetric contraction?
Which complex on an electrocardiogram (ECG) is associated with isovolumetric contraction?
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During ventricular ejection, which valves are open and closed respectively?
During ventricular ejection, which valves are open and closed respectively?
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What affects stroke volume (SV) based on the provided factors?
What affects stroke volume (SV) based on the provided factors?
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What is the initial site of action potential (AP) generation in the heart?
What is the initial site of action potential (AP) generation in the heart?
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What is the final product of carbohydrate digestion that can be absorbed by the intestinal cells?
What is the final product of carbohydrate digestion that can be absorbed by the intestinal cells?
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During the absorptive stage of metabolism, what primarily occurs in the body?
During the absorptive stage of metabolism, what primarily occurs in the body?
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What is a key function of ATP in cellular metabolism?
What is a key function of ATP in cellular metabolism?
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What happens during the postabsorptive stage when the gastrointestinal tract is empty?
What happens during the postabsorptive stage when the gastrointestinal tract is empty?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of lipids in metabolism?
Which of the following is NOT a function of lipids in metabolism?
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What best describes the role of essential amino acids?
What best describes the role of essential amino acids?
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Which type of diabetes is characterized by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic islet cells?
Which type of diabetes is characterized by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic islet cells?
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Which process describes the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones?
Which process describes the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones?
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What is the ratio of genotypes when considering cystic fibrosis and normal alleles?
What is the ratio of genotypes when considering cystic fibrosis and normal alleles?
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Which of the following is NOT a treatment for cystic fibrosis?
Which of the following is NOT a treatment for cystic fibrosis?
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What is the most common STI caused by a small intracellular bacterium?
What is the most common STI caused by a small intracellular bacterium?
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Which part of the ECG corresponds to atrial depolarization?
Which part of the ECG corresponds to atrial depolarization?
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During which phase of the cardiac cycle do the ventricles fill with blood?
During which phase of the cardiac cycle do the ventricles fill with blood?
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Endometriosis is characterized by which of the following?
Endometriosis is characterized by which of the following?
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Which type of herpes is primarily transmitted through contact with lesions?
Which type of herpes is primarily transmitted through contact with lesions?
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What is the probability of an individual carrying the defective allele for cystic fibrosis?
What is the probability of an individual carrying the defective allele for cystic fibrosis?
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What condition is indicated by a pH of 7.31, paCO2 of 37, and HCO3 of 20?
What condition is indicated by a pH of 7.31, paCO2 of 37, and HCO3 of 20?
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Which of the following values would indicate a metabolic alkalosis condition?
Which of the following values would indicate a metabolic alkalosis condition?
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What is the interpretation of a pH of 7.3, paCO2 of 30.8, and HCO3 of 13?
What is the interpretation of a pH of 7.3, paCO2 of 30.8, and HCO3 of 13?
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In diagnosing respiratory acidosis, which of the following combinations would NOT indicate this condition?
In diagnosing respiratory acidosis, which of the following combinations would NOT indicate this condition?
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What condition is suggested by a pH of 7.42, paCO2 of 46, and HCO3 of 32?
What condition is suggested by a pH of 7.42, paCO2 of 46, and HCO3 of 32?
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Study Notes
Carbohydrate Digestion
- Only monosaccharides can be absorbed by the body.
- Larger carbohydrate chains must be broken down into smaller units.
- Amylase in saliva and pancreatic juices break down large chains into disaccharides.
- Enzymes in the brush border of enterocytes break down disaccharides into monosaccharides.
- Monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, are then absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells through active transport and diffusion.
Energy Production
- Cellular respiration captures energy from food to produce ATP in cells.
- Stored energy in glycogen and fats can be broken down when needed.
- Phosphorylation activates molecules by transferring high-energy phosphate groups from ATP.
Metabolism
- The body processes nutrients through digestion, absorption, and transport to tissues.
- Cells utilize absorbed nutrients for synthesis of lipids, proteins, and glycogen.
- Oxidative breakdown of intermediate products produces carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.
Metabolism Regulation
- The absorptive stage occurs for 4 hours after eating, characterized by anabolism exceeding catabolism.
- Excess nutrients are stored as fat.
- The postabsorptive stage occurs when the digestive tract is empty, relying on body reserves for energy. Catabolism exceeds anabolism.
Anabolism & Catabolism
- Anabolism: Synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones.
- Catabolism: Hydrolysis of complex structures into simpler ones.
Nutrient Utilization
- Glucose: Used for ATP production, stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles, and can be synthesized from other nutrients in the liver.
- Lipids: Used for ATP production, stored as triglycerides in adipose tissue, and can be synthesized from glucose.
- Proteins: Serve as building material, can be used for ATP, can be converted into fat for storage, and produce ammonia as a by-product which is converted into urea by the liver and excreted by the kidneys.
Amino Acids
- There are 20 different types of amino acids.
- They are the smallest building blocks of protein.
- Essential amino acids cannot be produced by the body and must be obtained from the diet.
Diabetes
- Characterized by the body's inability to maintain blood glucose levels.
- Can result from insulin deficiency or insulin resistance.
-
Types of diabetes:
- Type 1: Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic islet cells.
- Type 2: Insulin resistance, which may progress to type 1.
- Gestational: Occurs during pregnancy and is a risk factor for type 2.
- Type 2 Risk Factors: Obesity, metabolic syndrome, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet, tobacco smoking, and genetic factors.
Genetics
- Gene: A sequence of DNA containing information for a specific protein.
- Allele: Two versions of a gene, one inherited from each parent.
- Homozygous dominant: Inheriting two copies of the dominant allele (BB).
- Homozygous recessive: Inheriting two copies of the recessive allele (bb).
- Heterozygous: Inheriting one dominant and one recessive allele (Bb).
- Phenotype: Observable characteristics.
- Genotype: Unique sequence of DNA.
Autosomal Dominant Inheritance
- Example: Eye color, where Bb (Brown) is dominant over bb (blue).
Autosomal Recessive Inheritance
- The abnormal gene is recessive, and the condition only manifests with two recessive alleles.
- Example: Cystic fibrosis, where nn (cystic fibrosis) is recessive to N (Normal alleles).
Chromosomes
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
- Chromosomes 1-22 are autosomal.
- Chromosome 23 is the sex chromosome.
DNA Structure and Function
- DNA is double-stranded, with one strand acting as a template for the other.
- A binds to T (Apples in Trees)
- C binds to G (Cars in Garage)
- Each gene is read in sets of three letters, each set coding for an amino acid.
Cystic Fibrosis
- Affects 1 in 2800 individuals and 1 in 25 are carriers.
- Treatment involves:
- Replacement of pancreatic enzymes.
- Treatment of mucus buildup in the lungs.
- Prophylactic antibiotics.
- Improvement of liver function.
STIs
- 70,000 reported cases in Australia.
- Reporting is not mandatory for all types.
- Preventable with barrier contraception.
-
Types of STIs:
- Gonorrhea: Caused by microorganisms.
- Chlamydia: Caused by a small intracellular bacterium, the most common STI.
- Genital herpes: Two types, transmitted through contact with lesions or mucosal surfaces. The virus travels to the dorsal root ganglion and persists for life.
Endometriosis
- Functional endometrial tissue implants outside the uterus.
- Reacts to hormonal fluctuations of the menstrual cycle.
- Can cause infertility or pain.
ECG & Cardiac Cycle
- ECG: Records the electrical signal of the heart muscle during action potentials.
- P-wave: Atrial depolarization.
- P-R interval: From atrial depolarization to contraction.
- QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization.
- S-T segment: From ventricular depolarization to repolarization.
- T-wave: Ventricular repolarization.
Cardiac Cycle/Mechanical Events
-
Ventricular Filling (associated with P-wave):
- Heart in diastole (relaxed state).
- Ventricles fill with blood.
- Semilunar valves are closed.
- Atria contract, increasing ventricular pressure.
- End diastolic volume (EDV) is the amount of blood in ventricles at the end of atrial contraction.
-
Isovolumetric Contraction (associated with QRS complex):
- Atrial diastole.
- Ventricular systole (contraction).
- AV valves close, all 4 valves are closed (Lub sound is heard).
-
Ventricular Ejection:
- Ventricular systole.
- Semilunar valves open.
- AV valves remain closed.
- Blood is pumped out of the heart.
- Stroke volume (SV) is the blood pumped out per beat.
- End systolic volume (ESV) is the blood remaining in the heart after ejection.
-
Isovolumetric Relaxation:
- Ventricular diastole.
- Semilunar valves close.
- AV valves remain closed.
- Blood volume remains constant, and atria fill with blood.
Heart Rate, Stroke Volume, and Cardiac Output
- Heart rate (HR): Average 72 beats per minute.
- Stroke volume (SV): Amount of blood pumped out per beat.
- Cardiac output (CO): Amount of blood pumped out by the heart per minute.
- CO = HR x SV
Factors Affecting Stroke Volume
- Preload: EDV is part of preload, influenced by venous return and ventricular filling time.
- Contractility: Force of contraction at a given EDV.
- Afterload: Aortic pressure.
The Intrinsic Pathway of Conduction
- Pacemaker cells in the SA node initiate action potential (AP).
- AP spreads to both atria.
- Atrial depolarization occurs, representing the P-wave on ECG.
- Atrial contraction follows.
- AP reaches the AV node, where it is delayed for 0.1 seconds (allowing complete atrial contraction).
- AP travels to the bundle of HIS, then to right and left branches, and finally to Purkinje fibers.
- Ventricular depolarization occurs, representing the QRS complex on ECG.
- Ventricular contraction follows.
- Ventricular repolarization occurs, representing the T-wave on ECG.
- Ventricles relax.
ABG Interpretation
-
Rules:
- Check pH.
- Check partial pressure of carbon dioxide (paCO2).
- Check bicarbonate levels (HCO3).
- Determine if compensation is present.
-
Compensation:
- pH within normal range.
- Metabolic: HCO3 out of normal range.
- Respiratory: PaCO2 out of normal range.
-
Normal Ranges:
- pH: 7.35-7.45 (acidosis < 7.35, alkalosis > 7.45)
- paCO2: 35-45 (alkalosis < 35, acidosis > 45)
- HCO3: 22-26 (acidosis < 22, alkalosis > 26)
ABG Interpretation Example
| Values | Acid | Normal | Alkaline | Interpretation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| pH = 7.31 | pH | paCO2 | Metabolic acidosis with no compensation | |
| paCO2 = 37 | HCO3 | |||
| HCO3 = 20 | ||||
| pH = 7.3 | pH | paCO2 | Metabolic acidosis with partial compensation | |
| paCO2 = 30.8 | HCO3 | |||
| HCO3 = 13 | ||||
| pH = 7.42 | paCO2 | pH | HCO3 | Metabolic alkalosis with full compensation |
| paCO2 = 46 | ||||
| HCO3 = 32 |
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