Human Reproductive and Respiratory Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is primarily required for a confirmed cancer diagnosis?

  • Physical examination and imaging
  • Genetic testing and blood cultures
  • Tissue biopsy and microscopic examination (correct)
  • Blood test and patient history

What may be the first symptom of endothelial injury in men?

  • Loss of libido
  • Penile erection issues (correct)
  • Increased spermatogenesis
  • Emotional instability

Which hormone is most critical for libido and spermatogenesis in men?

  • Progesterone
  • Testosterone (correct)
  • Estrogen
  • Luteinizing hormone

What percentage of infertility cases are attributed to ovulatory disorders?

<p>40% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor primarily impacts the regularity of ovulation and quality of ova with age?

<p>Increasing age (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is a major contributor to blockages within the reproductive tract?

<p>Endometriosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term has replaced 'venereal disease' in medical terminology?

<p>Sexually transmitted infection (STI) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition accounts for approximately 20% of infertility cases?

<p>Abnormalities of the reproductive tract (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of interleukins in obstructive pulmonary diseases?

<p>To cause airway damage and mucus production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT strongly correlated with persistent HPV infection?

<p>Healthy diet (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initiates the early asthmatic response?

<p>Antigen exposure to bronchial mucosa (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of impaired expiration in asthma?

<p>Increased work-of-breathing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common type of asthma?

<p>Allergic asthma (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of air trapping in obstructive pulmonary diseases?

<p>Increased dyspnea (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initiates immune activation in the early asthmatic response?

<p>Antigen presentation to T-helper cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant characteristic of obstructive pulmonary diseases?

<p>Increased work of breathing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the lifestyle factors that can trigger acid reflux?

<p>Obesity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What pH level is typically associated with the highly acidic gastric contents in acid reflux?

<p>2 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of ulcer is more frequently associated with H.pylori infection?

<p>Duodenal ulcers (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does H.pylori play in duodenal ulcers?

<p>It activates immune cells and damages the mucosa. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a long-term consequence of reflux esophagitis?

<p>Adenocarcinoma (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition may precipitate the formation of gastric ulcers?

<p>Chronic gastritis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does increased duodenal acid have when chronic ulceration occurs?

<p>Metaplasia in the duodenum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary defect associated with gastric ulcers?

<p>Increased mucosal barrier permeability to hydrogen ions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant difference between gastric ulcers and duodenal ulcers regarding cancer risk?

<p>Gastric ulcers have an increased cancer risk. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is typical for pain associated with duodenal ulcers?

<p>Pain occurs 2-3 hours after eating. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common factor contributing to inflammatory bowel disease, particularly ulcerative colitis?

<p>Loss of mucin leading to increased permeability. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What symptom is commonly associated with severe inflammation in ulcerative colitis?

<p>Frequent diarrhea with small amounts of blood. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which inflammatory mediator is NOT typically involved in the inflammatory response of ulcerative colitis?

<p>Prostaglandin E1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age range does the onset of gastric ulcers typically occur?

<p>50-70 years of age (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is correct regarding the family history of individuals with duodenal ulcers?

<p>Family history is often positive. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do NSAIDs have on mucosal synthesis related to ulcers?

<p>Decrease mucosal synthesis of prostaglandins. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of surfactant in the lungs of premature infants?

<p>To separate liquid molecules and decrease alveolar surface tension (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What genetic mutation is primarily responsible for cystic fibrosis?

<p>Mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a significant risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)?

<p>Parental smoking (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pathogen is most commonly associated with bronchiolitis in children under 2 years of age?

<p>Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is primarily characterized by the reflux of stomach contents leading to esophagitis?

<p>Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is true?

<p>Infants with low-birth weight are at higher risk for SIDS. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is NOT related to the severity of bronchiolitis in premature infants?

<p>History of asthma (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What leads to the thick, dehydrated mucus characteristic of cystic fibrosis?

<p>Improper transport of chloride and water across epithelial membranes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of postprandial vomiting in infants?

<p>Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is NOT associated with an increased risk of cleft lip and/or palate?

<p>Exposure to radiation during pregnancy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What anatomical structures are absent in Hirschsprung disease, leading to functional obstruction?

<p>Meissner and Auerbach plexuses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily causes the pyloric sphincter to become enlarged and inflexible in IHPS?

<p>Thickened muscle fibers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential link to infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis?

<p>Bottle feeding (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition results in the distension of the proximal colon due to lack of neural stimulation?

<p>Megacolon (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Clefts involving the palate may result from which of the following factors?

<p>Familial predisposition (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the pyloric sphincter in IHPS is accurate?

<p>Muscle layers may become hypertrophied (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of cystocele?

<p>Childbirth trauma (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT commonly cited as a risk factor for pelvic organ prolapse?

<p>High levels of physical fitness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is rectocele primarily associated with?

<p>Descent of the rectum into the vaginal canal (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What treatment is commonly required for a large enterocele?

<p>Surgical intervention (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions may lead to increased intra-abdominal pressure, contributing to pelvic organ prolapse?

<p>Refractory constipation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a spermatocele?

<p>Benign cyst in the epididymis filled with milky fluid (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these conditions is associated with damage potentially caused by childbirth?

<p>Cystocele (A), Enterocele (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What symptom may be exacerbated by activities such as sneezing or vigorous exercise in women with pelvic organ prolapse?

<p>Increased bulging and descent of pelvic organs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of infected men may never show symptoms of gonorrhea?

<p>5% to 10% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant risk group for chlamydia infections?

<p>Individuals younger than 26 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is correct regarding the transmission of gonorrhea during childbirth?

<p>It can cause serious eye infections in the infant. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is human papillomavirus (HPV) commonly transmitted?

<p>Via direct contact with lesions or infected secretions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition may result from untreated gonorrhea in an infant?

<p>Bilateral corneal ulceration (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What strategy is recommended for preventing HPV acquisition in young adults?

<p>Vaccination against HPV (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which infection is often asymptomatic and a leading cause of preventable infertility?

<p>Chlamydia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated annual occurrence of unreported chlamydia infections?

<p>1 million infections (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between a spermatocele and a hydrocele regarding the appearance of the fluid upon aspiration?

<p>Hydrocele fluid appears clear and yellow. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most commonly associated with the development of ovarian cancer?

<p>Genetic predisposition involving BRCA mutations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the BRCA2 gene in the context of breast cancer?

<p>To repair damaged DNA. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What symptom is commonly associated with lower urinary tract obstruction in males?

<p>Urinary hesitancy. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the classification of ovarian cancer is accurate?

<p>Current evidence suggests it may also arise from other tissues like fallopian tubes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for breast cancer?

<p>Regular physical exercise. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely consequence of having excess adipose tissue in breast cancer patients?

<p>Promotion of breast cancer cell proliferation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic feature of a malignant ovarian tumor during its early stages?

<p>It is often diagnosed after metastasis occurs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of the underdevelopment of the vomer and nasal septum in cleft lip and palate conditions?

<p>Free communication between the nasal and oral cavities (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is associated with an increased risk of developing infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis (IHPS)?

<p>Bottle feeding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary issue arises due to the absence of parasympathetic plexuses in Hirschsprung disease?

<p>Failure to propel feces through the colon (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is characterized by thickened muscle fibers in the pyloric sphincter?

<p>Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one genetic or environmental factor associated with cleft lip and palate?

<p>Previous family history of cleft conditions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What anatomical change is seen in IHPS that contributes to the obstruction?

<p>Narrowing of the pyloric opening (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lifestyle factor may increase the risk of cleft lip and palate?

<p>Smoking cigarettes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What might lead to the term 'megacolon' in Hirschsprung disease?

<p>Failure of neural crest cells to migrate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a unique feature of Crohn's disease compared to ulcerative colitis?

<p>Common occurrence of small intestinal malabsorption (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the lesions in Crohn's disease?

<p>Skip lesions are mixed with uninflamed areas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which complication is more commonly associated with Crohn's disease compared to ulcerative colitis?

<p>Strictures and obstruction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the incidence of family history differ between ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease?

<p>More common in Crohn's disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main pathological difference in the layers affected by ulcerative colitis compared to Crohn's disease?

<p>Mucosal layer involved in ulcerative colitis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is less common in Crohn's disease than in ulcerative colitis?

<p>Bloody stools (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the appearance of lesions typically associated with Crohn's disease?

<p>Cobblestone appearance with ulceration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where in the gastrointestinal tract can Crohn's disease manifest?

<p>Anywhere from the mouth to the perianal area (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change is primarily caused by hypoxemia in respiratory conditions?

<p>Increased pH leading to respiratory alkalosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major consequence of severe bronchospasms in status asthmaticus?

<p>Air trapping leading to hyperexpansion (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes chronic bronchitis?

<p>Hypersecretion of mucus with a chronic productive cough (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about emphysema is true?

<p>It is characterized by abnormal enlargement of air spaces due to alveolar wall destruction. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes cor pulmonale in pulmonary disorders?

<p>Hypercapnia and hypoxemia causing pulmonary vasoconstriction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a typical feature of emphysema related to chest appearance?

<p>Barrel chest due to air trapping (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the ciliary function in chronic bronchitis?

<p>It becomes impaired, reducing the ability to clear mucus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common cause of respiratory acidosis?

<p>Hyperventilation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common cause of secondary dysmenorrhea?

<p>Pelvic inflammatory disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is most commonly associated with endometriosis?

<p>Dysuria (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of primary dysmenorrhea?

<p>Excessive prostaglandin production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can be a clinical manifestation of endometriosis?

<p>Progressive dysmenorrhea (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the usual site of ectopic endometrial tissue in endometriosis?

<p>Lungs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes uterine hypercontractility in primary dysmenorrhea?

<p>Excessive prostaglandins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term best describes the painful intercourse associated with endometriosis?

<p>Dyspareunia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common site for ectopic endometrial tissue in endometriosis?

<p>Spinal column (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of prolonged exposure to supersaturated bile on gallbladder motility?

<p>Decreased motility and incomplete emptying (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What pathological process can lead to acute pancreatitis following gallstone obstruction?

<p>Reflux of bile acid into the pancreatic duct (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sustained hypercalcemia affect the activation of trypsin in the pancreas?

<p>It accelerates the transformation of trypsinogen to trypsin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural issue leads to a cleft lip (CL) in newborns?

<p>Inadequate fusion of the nasomedial or intermaxillary process (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What part of the mouth is affected by a cleft palate?

<p>Soft palate and may extend to the alveolar ridge (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following may complicate the presence of a cleft lip?

<p>Missing or malformed teeth along the cleft line (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is a potential physiological response due to inflammation in acute pancreatitis?

<p>Increased recruitment of neutrophils (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect can cleft palate have on the alignment of dental structures?

<p>Potential misalignment of teeth and jaw development (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common intrahepatic cause of portal hypertension?

<p>Vascular remodeling with shunts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change primarily results in the formation of esophageal varices during portal hypertension?

<p>Increased pressure in the portal vein (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does ascites affect the availability of body fluid for physiological functions?

<p>Decreases the amount of usable body fluid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What biochemical alteration primarily leads to hepatic encephalopathy?

<p>Toxins accumulating in the brain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process leads to the formation of gallstones in the biliary tract?

<p>Impaired metabolism of cholesterol and bilirubin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of capillary hydrostatic pressure in the development of ascites due to portal hypertension?

<p>It exceeds capillary oncotic pressure, pushing water into the peritoneal cavity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure involves distended collateral veins and is associated with prolonged pressure in the portal vein?

<p>Esophageal varices (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What complication occurs when ammonia accumulates in the body due to liver dysfunction?

<p>Development of hepatic encephalopathy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of increased pulmonary arterial pressure on the right ventricle?

<p>Right-sided heart failure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consequence of tobacco smoke exposure in lung cancer development?

<p>Progression from metaplasia to carcinoma in situ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of lung cancer is typically located centrally near the hila?

<p>Squamous cell carcinoma (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common cause of pneumoconiosis?

<p>Bacterial infection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which feature distinguishes small cell lung carcinoma from large cell carcinoma?

<p>It has the worst prognosis of all lung cancers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three main components of the triad of Virchow associated with pulmonary embolism?

<p>Venous stasis, coagulopathy, endothelial injury (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following contributes primarily to airway obstruction in pediatric obstructive apnea syndrome (OSAS)?

<p>Upper airway soft tissue obstruction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which lung cancer type does pulmonary adenocarcinoma develop through a stepwise progression?

<p>Non-small cell lung cancer (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes large cell carcinomas in the context of lung cancer?

<p>They exhibit rapid growth and early metastasis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the primary risk factors for developing lung cancer?

<p>Genetic predisposition combined with environmental toxins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the common symptom associated with large squamous cell lung tumors?

<p>Hemoptysis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the condition of cor pulmonale?

<p>Right ventricle hypertrophy and dilation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a typical symptom presented by individuals with large cell carcinomas?

<p>Extensive formation of granulomas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What stage process is most lung cancer characterized by?

<p>Progression through areas of chronic inflammation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about the treatment for pneumoconiosis?

<p>It primarily focuses on managing symptoms (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common impact of pediatric obstructive apnea syndrome on children during sleep?

<p>Waking due to oxygen desaturation and hypercapnia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of untreated intussusception?

<p>Bowel perforation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which demographic factor contributes significantly to the prevalence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in older adults?

<p>Immune system efficiency (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common clinical manifestation of painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis?

<p>Frequent or urgent need to urinate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which causative organism is most commonly associated with urinary tract infections, particularly in females?

<p>Escherichia coli (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely outcome of chronic inflammation in painful bladder syndrome?

<p>Fibrosis of the bladder wall (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is typical for the pain experienced in painful bladder syndrome?

<p>Severe and chronic (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is significant in the difficulty of diagnosing urinary tract infections in older adults?

<p>Vague symptoms like confusion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What anatomical feature contributes to the higher risk of UTIs in females compared to males?

<p>Proximity of the urethra to the anus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Cancer Diagnosis

Confirmed through tissue biopsy and microscopic examination of tissue.

Erectile Dysfunction (ED)

A condition where a man is unable to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for sexual intercourse.

Endothelial Damage

Damage to the inner lining of blood vessels, often associated with erectile dysfunction.

Hormonal Role in Sexual Function

Hormones, particularly testosterone, play a crucial role in sexual development and function.

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Infertility

The inability to conceive after one year of unprotected intercourse.

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Causes of Infertility

Various factors can contribute to infertility, including ovulatory disorders, abnormal sperm, blocked fallopian tubes, and endometriosis.

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Ovulation and Infertility

Ovulatory disorders, such as irregular or absent ovulation, are a common cause of infertility.

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Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI)

An infection transmitted through sexual contact.

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HPV Persistence

The continued presence of HPV in the body, which can lead to an increased risk of cancer.

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HPV Clearance

The body's ability to eliminate HPV infection, usually through the immune system.

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Air Trapping

The buildup of air in the lungs due to difficulty exhaling, leading to increased residual volume.

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Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases

Lung disorders characterized by difficulty breathing out due to airway obstruction, often caused by inflammation and increased mucus production.

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Early Asthmatic Response

The initial phase of an asthma attack where airways become hyperresponsive to triggers, often initiated by allergen exposure.

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Late Asthmatic Response

The later phase of an asthma attack, characterized by increased airway hyperresponsiveness and air trapping, occurring hours after the initial response.

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IgE in Asthma

An antibody that triggers mast cell degradation and the release of inflammatory mediators in asthma.

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Inflammatory Mediators in Asthma

Chemicals released during an asthmatic response, including histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes, causing airway constriction and mucus production.

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Surfactant Deficiency Disorder (SDD)

A condition primarily affecting premature infants born before 28 weeks, characterized by insufficient surfactant production in the lungs. This leads to difficulty inflating the alveoli and impairs gas exchange.

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Surfactant's role

Surfactant acts like a detergent, reducing surface tension in the alveoli, allowing them to expand for gas exchange.

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Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

An inherited disease affecting multiple organs, primarily the lungs, digestive system, and reproductive organs. It's caused by a mutation in the CFTR gene, leading to thick, sticky mucus buildup.

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CFTR protein function

The CFTR protein regulates chloride and water transport across epithelial membranes. A faulty CFTR protein hinders this process, contributing to mucus buildup.

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Bronchiolitis

A common viral infection of the smaller airways in young children, most often caused by Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV).

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Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)

Occurring when stomach acid and pepsin reflux back into the esophagus, causing irritation and esophagitis.

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Causes of GERD

GERD can be caused by issues with the lower esophageal sphincter (LES), esophageal motility, gastric motility, or emptying.

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LES relaxation

Spontaneous relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) can be triggered by gastric distention after meals, leading to acid reflux.

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Gastric Ulcer Pain

Pain occurs immediately after eating, often caused by irritation from food.

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Duodenal Ulcer Pain

Pain typically occurs 2-3 hours after eating, often due to acid reflux from the stomach.

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NSAIDs and Ulcers

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can increase the risk of ulcers by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis, a protective substance in the stomach lining.

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Ulcerative Colitis: Location

It starts in the rectum and can spread upwards, affecting the entire colon.

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Ulcerative Colitis: Mucosal Damage

Inflammation and damage are limited to the inner lining of the colon (mucosa).

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Ulcerative Colitis: Mucosal Protection

The protective mucus layer is compromised, making the colon vulnerable to bacteria and inflammation.

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TNF-α in Ulcerative Colitis

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α is a key inflammatory molecule that contributes to the damage in ulcerative colitis.

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Ulcerative Colitis: Symptoms

Symptoms include bleeding, cramping pain, frequent diarrhea, and the passage of bloody/mucus-filled stool.

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Cleft Lip and Palate

A birth defect where the upper lip and/or roof of the mouth (palate) don't close completely during pregnancy.

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Family History and Cleft Lip/Palate

Parents with a family history of cleft lip or palate have a higher chance of having a child with the same condition.

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Environmental Factors and Cleft Lip/Palate

Exposure to certain substances during pregnancy, like smoking, alcohol, or specific medications, can increase the risk of cleft lip and palate.

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Infantile Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis (IHPS)

A condition where the pyloric sphincter, the muscle at the stomach's exit, becomes thickened and narrowed, causing blockage and vomiting.

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Pyloric Sphincter

A ring of muscle at the end of the stomach that controls the flow of food into the small intestine.

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Hirschsprung Disease

A condition where nerve cells in the colon are missing, causing a lack of muscle movement and blockage of stool.

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Megacolon

An enlarged colon caused by a blockage in the large intestines, often due to Hirschsprung disease.

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Neural Crest Cells

Specialized cells that migrate during development to form parts of the nervous system, including the intestines.

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Reflux Esophagitis

Inflammation of the esophagus caused by stomach acid backing up into the esophagus.

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What triggers Acid Reflux?

Factors like acidic foods, delayed gastric emptying, obesity, and activities that increase abdominal pressure (vomiting, coughing, lifting, bending, pregnancy).

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H. pylori

A type of bacteria that commonly infects the stomach and duodenum, leading to ulcers.

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Duodenal Ulcer

A sore on the lining of the duodenum, often caused by H.pylori infection or NSAID use.

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NSAID

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, like ibuprofen or naproxen, that can cause ulcers.

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Gastric Ulcer

A sore on the lining of the stomach, often caused by a weakened stomach lining or chronic gastritis.

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Gastric Secretion

The production of stomach acid and other substances to aid digestion.

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Antral Area

The lower part of the stomach, where gastric ulcers commonly occur.

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Chronic Gastritis

Long-term inflammation of the stomach lining that can lead to ulcers.

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Precancerous Lesions

Abnormal cells that can develop into cancer if left untreated.

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Adenocarcinoma

A type of cancer that arises from glandular tissue, often found in the stomach.

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Mucosal Barrier

A protective lining that shields the stomach and duodenum from acid damage.

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Increased Permeability

When the mucosal barrier becomes weakened, allowing acid to penetrate and cause damage.

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Parietal Cells

Cells in the stomach lining that produce acid.

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Bicarbonate Production

A process by which the duodenum produces a substance that neutralizes acid.

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Immune Cells

Cells of the immune system that fight infection and inflammation.

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Cytokines

Chemical messengers that help regulate the immune response.

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Metaplasia

A change in the type of cells in the duodenum, often triggered by acid.

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H. pylori Toxin

A harmful substance produced by H.pylori that damages mucosal cells, leading to ulcers.

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Spermatocele vs. Hydrocele

A spermatocele is a cyst filled with sperm, while a hydrocele is a fluid-filled sac. A hydrocele aspiration yields clear yellow fluid, and unlike a spermatocele, it covers the entire testis.

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Ovarian Cancer: Silent Killer

Ovarian cancer is often discovered late due to its asymptomatic nature and tendency to metastasize quickly.

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BRCA1 and BRCA2 in Cancer

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are tumor suppressor genes. Mutations in these genes can disrupt their function, increasing the risk of breast and ovarian cancers.

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Breast Cancer Risk Factors

Factors like age, genetics, family history, hormone use, lifestyle (smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle), and environmental exposure contribute to breast cancer development.

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Bladder Outflow Obstruction (BOO)

BOO causes difficulty urinating (hesitancy), interruptions in the flow (intermittency), frequent nighttime urination (nocturia), and dribbling.

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BOO Impact on Quality of Life

BOO significantly impacts the quality of life by causing discomfort, inconvenience, and social limitations.

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Ovarian Cancer Pathogenesis

The exact cause of ovarian cancer is unknown, but genetic predisposition and potential origins from fallopian tubes, endometriosis deposits, or stromal cells are being investigated.

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Male Breast Cancer: BRCA2

Males with breast cancer are more likely to have a mutation in the BRCA2 gene compared to BRCA1.

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Gonorrhea Cause

Gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which is a gram-negative diplococcus.

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Gonorrhea Transmission

Gonorrhea is primarily spread through direct contact with infected mucosal surfaces, like the genitals, mouth, or rectum.

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Gonorrhea Symptoms in Men

Around 5-10% of men with gonorrhea experience no symptoms at all.

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Chlamydia Cause

Chlamydia infections are caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis, a common sexually transmitted infection.

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Chlamydia Risk Groups

Individuals under 26, those with a recent new sexual partner, and those engaging in risky behaviors are at higher risk of chlamydia.

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HPV Transmission

HPV spreads through direct contact with infected lesions or secretions.

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HPV Prevalence

HPV infections are largely underestimated because many cases are asymptomatic.

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HPV Prevention

Preventing HPV infection is crucial, especially among young adults, as it is the most common viral STI in the US.

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Pelvic Organ Prolapse (POP)

A condition where one or more pelvic organs (bladder, uterus, rectum) descend from their normal position into the vagina.

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Cystocele

A type of POP where the bladder wall bulges into the vagina, often caused by childbirth.

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Rectocele

A type of POP where the rectum protrudes into the vagina, often worsened by childbirth and constipation.

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Enterocele

A rare type of POP where a pouch of the abdomen pushes into the vagina, often found in older, obese individuals.

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What causes POP?

Common causes are childbirth, pelvic floor surgery, obesity, constipation, pelvic organ cancer, and damage to pelvic nerves.

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Symptoms of Cystocele

Symptoms include increased vaginal bulging, especially with activity, and difficulty urinating.

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Risk Factors for POP

Age, obesity, hysterectomy, strong family history, and heavy lifting.

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Spermatocele

A benign cyst, often filled with milky fluid containing sperm, that forms in the epididymis, the coiled tube attached to the testicle.

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Hypoxemia and Hyperventilation

Low blood oxygen levels (hypoxemia) trigger increased breathing (hyperventilation) by stimulating the respiratory center. This leads to lower carbon dioxide levels (Paco2) and a rise in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis).

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Air Trapping in Asthma

Severe bronchospasms in asthma lead to difficulty exhaling, trapping air in the lungs. This causes lung and chest expansion (hyperexpansion), making breathing harder.

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Respiratory Failure Sign

Respiratory acidosis, where CO2 buildup in the blood increases, is a critical sign of respiratory failure.

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Chronic Bronchitis

Defined by persistent cough with mucus production for at least 3 months a year, for 2 consecutive years. It involves inflamed airways, excessive mucus, and impaired cilia.

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Emphysema: Alveoli Destruction

Involves the breakdown of alveoli walls due to elastin loss, leading to enlarged air spaces and impaired gas exchange.

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Cor Pulmonale

A condition linked to lung disorders, caused by low oxygen levels (hypoxemia) and high CO2 levels (hypercapnia), which lead to increased pressure in the pulmonary system.

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Smoking and Emphysema

Smoking is the leading cause of emphysema, due to its damaging effects on lung tissues like elastin.

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α1-Antitrypsin Deficiency

A rare genetic condition that can lead to emphysema, even in non-smokers, especially those developing the disease before age 40.

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Crohn's Disease

A chronic inflammatory bowel disease that can affect any part of the digestive tract, from mouth to anus. It is characterized by "skip lesions" (inflamed areas mixed with uninflamed areas), granulomas, fistulas, and deep ulcers.

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Skip Lesions

Areas of inflammation interspersed with normal, healthy tissue in the digestive tract, characteristic of Crohn's disease.

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Granulomas

Clumps of inflammatory cells (mainly macrophages) found in Crohn's disease, forming a cobblestone appearance on the intestinal lining. They may also be present in other inflammatory diseases like sarcoidosis.

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Fistulas

Abnormal connections or tunnels that form between different parts of the digestive tract or between the tract and other organs, commonly seen in Crohn's disease.

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Strictures

Narrowing of the digestive tract, often caused by inflammation and scarring in Crohn's disease, which can lead to obstruction.

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Diverticula

Pouch-like bulges or sacs that form in the wall of the colon, particularly at weak points, often related to a low-fiber diet.

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Diverticular Disease

A condition characterized by the presence of diverticula in the colon, which can become inflamed and lead to pain, bleeding, or infection. It's more common in older adults.

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Features that Distinguish Crohn's from Ulcerative Colitis

Crohn's disease affects the entire intestinal wall, has "skip lesions", and can involve any part of the digestive tract. Ulcerative colitis affects only the mucosal layer of the colon, has continuous lesions, and starts in the rectum.

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What are some risk factors for cleft lip and palate?

Family history, exposure to certain substances during pregnancy (smoking, alcohol, medications), obesity, and diabetes.

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What is the pyloric sphincter?

A ring of muscle at the end of the stomach that controls the flow of food into the small intestine.

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What is megacolon?

An enlarged colon caused by a blockage in the large intestines, often due to Hirschsprung disease.

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What happens in Hirschsprung disease?

Neural crest cells fail to migrate into the GI tract, resulting in a lack of parasympathetic plexuses (nerve networks) in the colon. This causes the muscles to fail to move stool, leading to a blockage.

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Gallstone Obstruction

A gallstone blocks the common bile duct, preventing pancreatic enzymes from reaching the small intestine.

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Pancreatic Enzyme Backflow

Blocked bile duct forces pancreatic enzymes back into the pancreas, leading to inflammation.

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Trypsin Activation

Trypsin, a powerful enzyme, activates when calcium levels are high, leading to cell damage and inflammation.

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Cleft Lip

A birth defect caused by incomplete fusion of facial structures during embryonic development.

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Cleft Palate

A birth defect where the roof of the mouth doesn't close completely, affecting the uvula, soft palate, and potentially the hard palate.

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Facial Deformity

Cleft lip can affect the nose, nasal cartilages, septum, and teeth.

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Bilateral Cleft Lip

The defect occurs on both sides of the lip, which may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

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Cleft Palate and Cleft Lip

Cleft palate is often present along with cleft lip, but can also occur independently.

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Pneumoconiosis

A lung disease caused by inhaling dust particles, often from occupational exposures. The dust irritates the lungs, leading to inflammation and scarring.

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Pulmonary Embolism (PE)

A blockage in the pulmonary arteries caused by a blood clot that travels from the legs or other parts of the body to the lungs.

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Virchow's Triad

Three risk factors for deep vein thrombosis (DVT), which can lead to pulmonary embolism: venous stasis, injury to blood vessel lining, and hypercoagulability.

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Squamous Cell Carcinoma

A type of lung cancer that arises from the cells lining the airways. It's often found in the center of the lungs.

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Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC)

A group of lung cancers that includes squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large cell carcinoma. They are the most common types of lung cancer.

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Pulmonary Parenchyma

The functional tissue of the lungs, consisting of the alveoli and surrounding structures involved in gas exchange.

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Portal Hypertension

Increased pressure in the portal vein system, usually caused by liver cirrhosis or right heart failure. This pressure buildup forces blood into collateral veins, causing complications like esophageal varices and ascites.

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Esophageal Varices

Distended, tortuous collateral veins in the esophagus, formed due to portal hypertension. These varices are prone to rupture, leading to life-threatening bleeding.

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Ascites

Accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, caused by increased pressure in the portal vein. This fluid buildup reduces the volume of circulating blood.

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Hepatic Encephalopathy

Neurological dysfunction caused by the accumulation of toxins in the bloodstream, unable to be filtered by a diseased liver. These toxins affect brain function.

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Cholelithiasis

Presence of gallstones formed in the biliary tract due to abnormal metabolism of cholesterol, bilirubin, and bile acids. These stones can obstruct the bile flow, causing pain and inflammation.

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Gallstones Formation

Gallstones develop due to supersaturation of cholesterol, bilirubin, and bile acids. These substances form crystals that aggregate and grow larger.

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Hypomotility of Gallbladder

Reduced muscle activity in the gallbladder, contributing to gallstone formation. This allows bile to stagnate, favoring crystal formation.

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Supersaturation in Gallstones

An excess of cholesterol, bilirubin, or bile acids in the bile, exceeding the solution's capacity, leads to the formation of crystals.

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Large Cell Carcinoma

A type of lung cancer characterized by rapid growth and early metastasis, considered undifferentiated non-small cell carcinoma.

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Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (SCLC)

The most common type of neuroendocrine lung tumor, known for its rapid growth and early, widespread metastasis, making it the most aggressive form of lung cancer.

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Carcinogen-induced mutations

Alterations in DNA caused by harmful substances like those found in tobacco smoke and air pollution, initiating the development of lung cancer.

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Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome (OSAS)

A condition in children where the upper airway is partially or completely blocked during sleep, causing disruptions in breathing patterns and sleep quality.

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Airway narrowing in OSAS

Caused by various factors like craniofacial abnormalities, obesity, asthma, allergies, and enlarged tonsils and adenoids.

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OSAS symptoms

Include snoring, labored breathing, oxygen desaturation, hypercapnia (high CO2), and frequent awakenings.

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Tumor development promotion

Once lung cancer is initiated by carcinogens, further development is aided by mutations affecting growth factors and inflammatory mediators.

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Metaplasia to invasive carcinoma

A progressive sequence of changes in bronchial epithelial cells, starting with metaplasia (abnormal cell development) and ending with invasive carcinoma.

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Intussusception

A condition where a portion of the intestine telescopes into another part, usually the ileum into the cecum. This telescoping causes obstruction and can lead to complications like bleeding, necrosis, and perforation.

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Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

An infection of the urinary tract, commonly caused by bacteria like Escherichia coli. Older adults may present with confusion and vague abdominal discomfort.

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Escherichia coli (E. coli)

A type of bacteria that is a common cause of urinary tract infections. It has finger-like projections that help it attach to the urinary tract lining and resist flushing by urine flow.

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Painful Bladder Syndrome (PBS)/Interstitial Cystitis (IC)

A chronic bladder pain disorder characterized by discomfort and frequent urination. It can be difficult to diagnose, and may be linked to other systemic conditions like fibromyalgia.

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What are the potential causes of PBS/IC?

The exact cause is unknown, but research points to possible factors like an autoimmune reaction leading to inflammation in the bladder, mast cell activation, and increased nerve sensitivity.

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What happens over time with PBS/IC?

Chronic inflammation in the bladder leads to fibrosis, meaning scar tissue forms, which can reduce bladder volume and worsen pain.

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What are some common symptoms of PBS/IC?

People with PBS/IC may experience pain and pressure in the bladder, pelvic pain, and frequent or urgent urination.

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What are some key differences between cystitis and painful bladder syndrome?

Cystitis, or a urinary tract infection, is usually caused by bacteria and often presents with fever and burning pain. PBS/IC is a chronic condition with unknown cause, often associated with other systemic illnesses, and characterized by pain and frequent urination.

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Primary Dysmenorrhea

Painful menstrual periods caused by excessive prostaglandin production in the endometrium. This leads to increased uterine contractions, decreased blood flow, and nerve hypersensitivity, resulting in pain.

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Secondary Dysmenorrhea

Painful periods caused by underlying pelvic conditions like endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, uterine fibroids, or IUDs.

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Endometriosis

A condition where endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus, often in the pelvic cavity, ovaries, or uterosacral ligaments. This tissue responds to hormonal changes and causes pain and infertility.

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Endometriosis Symptoms

Common symptoms include painful periods (dysmenorrhea), painful urination (dysuria), painful intercourse (dyspareunia), constipation, and abnormal vaginal bleeding.

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What is the difference between primary and secondary dysmenorrhea?

Primary dysmenorrhea is caused by excessive prostaglandin production, while secondary dysmenorrhea is caused by underlying pelvic conditions.

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Why does endometriosis cause pain?

The ectopic endometrial tissue responds to hormonal changes just like normal endometrial tissue, causing inflammation, bleeding, and scarring, leading to pain.

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How does endometriosis affect fertility?

The presence of endometrial tissue outside the uterus can cause scarring in the fallopian tubes, pelvic adhesions, and inflammation, making it difficult for an egg to be fertilized or travel to the uterus.

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What are common sites of endometriosis implantations?

Common sites include the pelvic peritoneum, ovaries, uterosacral ligaments, and even outside the pelvic region, in the GI tract, lungs, diaphragm, abdomen, and pericardium.

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Intussusception Complications

Without treatment, intussusception can lead to serious complications like bleeding, tissue death (necrosis), and bowel perforation.

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Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Older Adults

UTIs in older adults commonly present with confusion and poorly localized abdominal discomfort, making it difficult to diagnose.

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Escherichia coli and UTIs

E. coli, a common UTI culprit, has finger-like projections that bind to the lining of the urinary tract, resisting flushing by urine flow.

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PBS/IC Symptoms

Symptoms can vary in intensity and frequency, ranging from mild discomfort to severe pain. Pain may be constant or fluctuate.

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PBS/IC and Other Chronic Disorders

PBS/IC is often associated with other chronic conditions like fibromyalgia, irritable bowel disease, and chronic fatigue syndrome. The exact link is still being researched.

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PBS/IC: Chronic Inflammation and Fibrosis

Chronic inflammation in the bladder can cause fibrosis (scarring), reducing the bladder's capacity and contributing to pain.

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Study Notes

Exam 4 Fall 2024 Adv Pathophysiology

  • Exam opens Tuesday, December 10th at 8 AM Central Time and closes Friday, December 13th at 8 AM Central Time.
  • Scores will be posted by Saturday, December 14th at 5 PM.
  • Exam covers Chapters 25, 26, 27, 35, 36, 38, 39, 41, and 42.
  • Average exam score of 79.5% required to pass the course. Remaining points from assignments and discussions will add to the final grade.

Alterations in the Female Reproductive System

  • Hormonal and Menstrual Alterations:
    • Primary dysmenorrhea results from excessive endometrial prostaglandin production.
    • Elevated prostaglandin levels lead to uterine hypercontractility, reduced blood flow, and nerve hypersensitivity, resulting in painful periods.
    • Secondary dysmenorrhea arises from pelvic pathologies like endometriosis, endometritis, uterine fibroids, polyps, tumors, ovarian cysts, or intrauterine devices (IUDs).
  • Endometriosis:
    • Presence of functioning endometrial tissue outside the uterus (ectopic).
    • Common sites include the pelvic peritoneum, ovaries, uterosacral ligaments, and occasionally the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, diaphragm, abdomen, and pericardium.
    • Exact cause unknown.
    • Symptoms are variable, including progressive dysmenorrhea, dysuria (painful urination), dyspareunia (painful intercourse), constipation, and abnormal vaginal bleeding.
    • High risk for infertility and certain cancers, particularly ovarian cancer.
  • Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS):
    • Unknown underlying cause, suspected genetic basis.
    • Characterized by at least two of three features: irregular ovulation, elevated androgens (e.g., testosterone), and polycystic ovaries on ultrasound.
    • Hyperandrogenism and ovulatory dysfunction are key features.
    • Elevated androgens affect follicular development.
    • Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is decreased, impacting egg production.
    • Often associated with glucose intolerance/insulin resistance (IR) which worsens hyperandrogenism.
    • Obesity exacerbates IR and the severity of PCOS symptoms.

Alterations of the Pulmonary System

  • Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases: Characterized by lung inflammation, cytokine release, and mucus production. Airway obstruction is worse during expiration.
  • Asthma:
    • Early asthmatic response triggered by antigen exposure to bronchial mucosa, activating immune cells (T-helper cells), leading to IgE production and release of inflammatory mediators (histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes). These mediators cause capillary permeability, mucosal edema, bronchial smooth muscle contraction, and mucus secretion, leading to airway narrowing.
    • Late asthmatic response involves neuropeptide release, further increasing hyperresponsiveness, and potentially leading to hyperinflation and respiratory alkalosis (decreasing PaCO2 and increasing pH).
    • Status Asthmaticus is a severely progressive condition with persistent obstruction and increasing CO2 retention.
  • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD):
    • Two major types: chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
    • Chronic bronchitis is characterized by chronic inflammation and mucus production.
    • Emphysema involves the destruction of alveolar walls and enlargement of air spaces.
  • Restrictive Lung Diseases: Characterized by decreased lung compliance, the effort required to expand the lungs.
    • Examples include aspiration, pulmonary edema, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pneumoconiosis.
    • Causes include inhalation of inorganic dust (silicosis, asbestos, coal), leading to inflammation and impaired lung function.

Alterations of the Digestive Function

  • Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD):
    • Acid and pepsin reflux from the stomach into the esophagus causing inflammation (esophagitis).
    • Caused by abnormalities in lower esophageal sphincter (LES) function and gastric emptying.
  • Peptic Ulcer Disease:
    • Duodenal ulcers are more common, often caused by Helicobacter pylori infection or NSAID use.
    • Helicobacter pylori increases duodenal acid and impairs bicarbonate production, resulting in mucosal damage.
  • Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate: Common craniofacial malformations in newborns. Results from incomplete fusion of the nasomedial or intermaxillary processes during embryonic development.

Alterations of the Renal and Urinary Tract Systems

  • Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Common cause is E. coli, particularly in females due to anatomical structure. UTI is challenging to diagnose in older adults due to vague symptoms.
  • Painful Bladder Syndrome/Interstitial Cystitis (PBS/IC): Often associated with other chronic disorders, PBS/IC is a chronic bladder pain disorder with a poorly understood cause.
  • Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stones):
    • Characterized by crystals, primarily calcium oxalate, in urine.
    • Formation is caused by increased mineral concentration in urine, lack of inhibitors, and other factors.
  • Acute Glomerulonephritis (AG): Glomerular inflammation caused by immune reactions, most commonly involving immune complex deposition. Clinically presents with hematuria, proteinuria, and renal dysfunction.
  • Chronic Kidney Failure (CKD): Characterized by progressive and irreversible loss of kidney function, often associated with systemic diseases like diabetes mellitus and hypertension.
  • Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): A sudden decline in renal function, can be caused by decreased perfusions, vascular dysfunction, or nephrotoxic substances.
  • Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR): A condition where urine flows back from the bladder into the ureters, often associated with UTIs and resultant kidney problems in children.

Other Systems

  • Infantile Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis (IHPS): Narrowing and obstruction of the pylorus, commonly causing postprandial vomiting in infants.
  • Hirschsprung Disease: Absence of parasympathetic nerve plexuses (Meissner and Auerbach plexuses) in the colon, leading to functional obstruction. Common in newborns/infants.
  • Intussusception: Telescoping of one portion of the intestine into another, often occurring in the ileocecal valve.
  • Cirrhosis: Irreversible scarring of the liver, often from chronic liver injury (e.g., alcohol).
  • Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD): Infiltration of liver cells with fat, typically associated with obesity, and often a precursor to liver problems.
  • Portal Hypertension: Increased pressure in the portal venous system, usually due to liver disease (e.g., cirrhosis).
  • Cystic Fibrosis: Inherited disorder resulting in thickened mucus production, impacting digestive and respiratory systems in affected individuals.

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Exam 4 Fall 2024 Adv Pathophysiology PDF

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Test your knowledge on human reproductive health and respiratory physiology with this quiz. Explore key concepts such as infertility, hormonal roles, and asthma mechanisms. This quiz will help reinforce your understanding of these important biological processes.

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