Human Origins and Evolutionary Evidence

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Questions and Answers

How many different stocks did the initial classification of Aboriginal languages in North America include?

58 (correct)

What was one of the primary purposes of the classification made by Powell?

To trace the historical evolution of languages

To establish linguistic connections among different languages

To provide a basis for the placement of tribes on specific reservations (correct)

To demonstrate the complexity of indigenous grammar

Which classification method best describes Powell's approach?

Holistic

Radical

Splitter (correct)

Lumper

What significant change did Edward Sapir make to the number of language stocks in his 1921 classification?

Reduced the number from 58 to 6 Signup and view all the answers

What was a major flaw in Powell's classification of Aboriginal languages?

He did not consider grammar as a factor in relationships. Signup and view all the answers

Which language did Sapir classify as Algonquian, despite its extinction?

Beothuk Signup and view all the answers

What was the title of the classification that Sapir produced in 1929?

Radical 6-unit Classification Signup and view all the answers

How many units did Sapir's conservative grouping contain compared to his radical classification?

23 Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of Indian nations in their relationships with other groups during the 17th and 18th centuries?

Maximizing their specific national interests Signup and view all the answers

Which group moved west to seek protection under the Iroquois and later migrated further west?

Delaware Signup and view all the answers

What key measure was included in the English Royal Proclamation of 1763 regarding Indian land?

The Crown would negotiate land alienations Signup and view all the answers

During which conflict did Indian nations fight on both sides?

The American Revolutionary War Signup and view all the answers

What significant change occurred in European immigration to North America after the American Revolution?

Immigration became predominantly by free persons Signup and view all the answers

What kind of trade between Europeans and Indians increased during the late 18th century?

Extended direct trade along mainly east-west routes Signup and view all the answers

Which nation joined the Pacific Northwest trade during the late 18th century?

Russia Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of English domination in Quebec and the Maritimes on Indian nations?

Removal of the ability to play off powers against one another Signup and view all the answers

What is the main conclusion drawn about non-African humans?

They all descended from a common ancestor in East Africa. Signup and view all the answers

What major change occurred to the policy regarding Indigenous peoples in the late 1870s?

It shifted from assimilation by community to individual assimilation. Signup and view all the answers

Which groups make up the three genetic classifications globally accepted?

Africans, Eurasians, and East Asians Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the Indian Act of 1876 for Indigenous nations?

It imposed a system of band governance controlled by the federal government. Signup and view all the answers

What does the study of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) suggest about the founding population in Beringia?

It emerged from a single-source ancestral population. Signup and view all the answers

Which policy orientation contributed to the tension in the 1885 Rebellion?

The focus on individual enfranchisement and loss of community integrity. Signup and view all the answers

What does the uniform distribution of founding haplotypes across the Americas indicate?

The hemisphere was quickly populated reaching South America. Signup and view all the answers

How have teeth contributed to the study of evolution?

They tend to be preserved and are evolutionarily conservative. Signup and view all the answers

What was a key factor in the negotiations regarding Manitoba's admission as a province?

The protection of Metis community structures. Signup and view all the answers

What contradicts the theory of a 'late entry' of humans into the Americas?

Findings showing a presence in North America over 12,000 years ago. Signup and view all the answers

How did the Confederation affect Indigenous nations in Canada?

It turned Indigenous nations into internal colonies. Signup and view all the answers

What hypothesis relates to the differentiation of the ancestors from kin in East Asia and Siberia?

Isolation in Beringia caused significant differentiation. Signup and view all the answers

What motivated the federal government to enter into treaties in the late 1870s?

Pressure to alienate Indian lands in western Ontario and Manitoba. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributes to the preservation of teeth in evolutionary studies?

Their tendency to decay slower than soft tissues. Signup and view all the answers

Which area did the policies primarily apply to at first after Confederation?

Bands east of the Lakehead. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant effect of the shift in policies regarding reserves?

Reduction in the number of individuals opting for enfranchisement. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Buttermilk Creek Complex excavation?

It provided evidence of a highly portable tool kit predating Clovis. Signup and view all the answers

How many human coprolites were found at Paisley Caves, and what is their significance?

900 coprolites, dating to over 13,000 years ago with no associated tools. Signup and view all the answers

What was the initial reaction to the discovery of Kennewick Man's skeleton?

It sparked significant re-evaluation of the understanding of New World populations. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Kennewick Man from typical Amerindian features?

His long, narrow face and braincase differ from living Amerindians. Signup and view all the answers

What was the initial controversy regarding the Paisley Caves find?

They had no tools initially found with them. Signup and view all the answers

What does the presence of two cultural traditions coexisting suggest about early human societies?

Complex social structures may have existed among early populations. Signup and view all the answers

What was the approximate height of Kennewick Man?

174 centimeters tall. Signup and view all the answers

How did the views of archaeologists regarding Kennewick Man evolve over time?

It prompted a complex re-evaluation of biological history in the New World. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Human Origins

All non-African humans are descended from an individual who lived in East Africa approximately 60,000 years ago.
The three main genetic groups are Africans, Eurasians (Europeans, Middle Easterners, and Southwest Asians), and East Asians (Asians, Japanese, Southeast Asians, Americans, and Oceanians).
Humans reached the Middle East around 100,000 years ago, Southern Asia by 50,000 years ago, and Australia by 40,000 years ago.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), passed through the female line, suggests:
- A single-source ancestral population in Beringia, isolated for 5,000 to 15,000 years.
- A small founding population with only four major haplotype mtDNAs.
- Rapid population of the entire Americas, including South America.
- Back migration from North America to Siberia.

Evolutionary Evidence

Teeth are a key source of evolutionary information because they are well-preserved and change more slowly over time than other anatomical features.

Early American Language Classification

Christy Turner classified Aboriginal languages of North America into 58 stocks (later revised to 51).
- Turner's classification lacked information about certain languages and assumed a unified stage of evolutionary development.
- The purpose of the classification was to place tribes on reservations, disregarding the degree of relationship between languages.
Edward Sapir reduced the number of stocks to six.
- Sapir used a broader historical perspective and was willing to go beyond hard evidence.
- Sapir classified Beothuk, an extinct language from Newfoundland, as Algonquian due to its connection to neighboring Indian languages.
- Sapir linked the Na-Dene phylum to SinoTibetan.
- Sapir suggested that HokanSiouan was the basic North American Indian language, hypothesizing about reconstructing an ancestral protolanguage.

Early American Settlements

Buttermilk Creek Complex in Central Texas, dating back to 14,800 years before present, has revealed a portable toolkit from which Clovis techniques may have naturally evolved.
Paisley Caves in Central Oregon, with human coprolites and tools from the Western Stemmed Tradition, evidence two distinct cultures at the time.

Kennewick Man

Kennewick Man, a 9,300-year-old skeleton found in Washington, has sparked debate about the origins of early Americans.
Some archaeologists believe that Kennewick Man's features are not typically "Amerindian."
The discovery has led to a reexamination of early American skulls, which show features similar to Kennewick Man, but differ from living Amerindians, suggesting a more complex history.

First Nations and European Colonization

The English Royal Proclamation of 1763 protected Indigenous lands through crown negotiation.
Indian nations were on both sides of the American Revolutionary War and fought against each other in alliances with European nations.
European trade with Indigenous communities increased, extending westward along established fur trade routes and reaching the Pacific Northwest.
Russia established trading posts and missions in Alaska.

Assimilation Policies

- In the late 1870s, Canadian policies shifted from assimilation of communities to assimilation of individuals,  seeking to integrate Indigenous individuals into non-Native society through reserves located near non-Native communities.

The “Indian Act” of 1876 removed control over Indigenous land, membership, money, and leadership, granting the federal government exclusive authority.
The enfranchisement policy, aimed at individual assimilation, was largely ignored by Indigenous populations.

Maintaining Community Integrity

Indigenous nations prioritized community integrity in the face of European contact.
The admission of Manitoba as a province was a major point of conflict, with an attempt to preserve Metis community structures.
The failure of these provisions, along with pressure to alienate Indigenous lands, contributed to the 1885 Rebellion.
Formal treaties, such as the Robinson Huron and Robinson Superior treaties of 1850, were negotiated to address land alienation.

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Description

Explore the fascinating journey of human ancestors from East Africa to various parts of the world. This quiz delves into genetic groupings, mitochondrial DNA findings, and key evolutionary evidence, particularly teeth. Test your knowledge on the migration patterns and the origins of modern humans.