Human Evolution and Early Civilizations

Human Evolution and Early Civilizations

• Around 3 billion years ago, the process of evolution began, and humans emerged from a single-celled organism to a complex species.
• Around 6 million years ago, the first hominids, including early humans, emerged.
• 1.9 million years ago, Homo erectus was the first species to leave Africa and colonize other parts of the world.

Mesopotamia and the Emergence of Agriculture

• In 4000 BCE, the city of Uruk in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) developed agriculture, allowing people to settle and create a civilization.
• The people of Uruk harvested cereal grains like wheat and barley using a hand mill.
• This marked a significant shift from hunting and gathering, allowing for a more stable food source.

Sumerian Civilization

• Around 3000 BCE, the Sumerian king Gilgamesh ruled and was the subject of the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest surviving works of literature.
• The Sumerians developed a system of writing, architecture, and governance.

Indus Valley Civilization

• Between 3300 and 1300 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India flourished.
• The civilization was known for its advanced toilet system, with a seat and a chute leading to an underground drainage system.

Ancient Egypt

• In 2613 BCE, Pharaoh Snefaru built the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid.
• Pharaoh Khufu built the Great Pyramid of Giza in 2589 BCE.
• The Egyptians developed a system of mummification to preserve the bodies of the dead.
• The pharaohs believed in an afterlife, and the pyramids were built to help them in the next life.

Babylon and the Code of Hammurabi

• In 1772 BCE, King Hammurabi of Babylon created the Code of Hammurabi, a set of laws that governed the empire.
• The code included laws for justice, family, and commerce.

The Hittite Empire

• Around 1680 BCE, the Hittite Empire in modern-day Turkey emerged.
• King Labarnis united the Hittite city-states under a single rule.
• The Hittites developed a system of writing and a code of laws.

Mycenaean Greece

• From 1600 BCE to 1100 BCE, Mycenaean Greece flourished.
• The city-states of Mycenaean Greece were dominated by an elite warrior society.
• The Linear B script, an early form of Greek writing, was developed.

Ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire

• In 1279 BCE, Pharaoh Ramses II and King Hattusili III of the Hittite Empire signed a peace treaty, the first recorded in history.

The Olmec Civilization

• Between 1200 BCE and 400 BCE, the Olmec Civilization in modern-day Mexico emerged.
• The Olmecs developed a system of writing and architecture.

The Zhou Dynasty in China

• In 256 BCE, the Zhou Dynasty in China began to decline.
• The Zhou Dynasty developed a system of feudalism and a philosophy of the Mandate of Heaven.

Ancient Greece and Rome

• In 800 BCE, the city-states of ancient Greece began to colonize the Mediterranean.
• The Romans emerged as a powerful city-state, and according to legend, Romulus and Remus founded Rome in 753 BCE.

The Persian Empire

• In 550 BCE, Cyrus the Great conquered the Medes Empire and founded the Persian Empire.
• The Persians developed a system of governance and administration.

Sparta and Athens

• In ancient Greece, Sparta and Athens emerged as powerful city-states.
• Sparta was a military powerhouse, and Athens developed a system of democracy.

The Buddha and Eastern Philosophy

• In 500 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, was born in the kingdom of Magadha in India.
• The Buddha developed the concept of Enlightenment, which is a state of inner peace and understanding of the universe.

The Battle of Marathon

• In 490 BCE, the Persians, led by Darius, invaded Greece and were defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon.### The Greco-Persian Wars
• In 490 BCE, the Persians were defeated at the Battle of Marathon, where an Athenian messenger named Pheidippides ran 26.2 miles to Athens to announce the victory.
• In 480 BCE, Xerxes I, son of Darius I, sought revenge and brought an enormous invasion force of over 100,000 soldiers to conquer Greece.
• At the Battle of Thermopylae, King Leonidas of Sparta led a force of 7,000 Greeks in a bold and daring plan to defeat the Persians, but they were ultimately defeated.
• At the Battle of Salamis, the Greek fleet, led by the Athenian general Themistocles, employed a plan to lure the Persian Fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis, leading to a decisive Greek victory.

The Battle of Plataea

• After diplomatic talks ceased, the Persians attacked, and the Greeks, led by the united city-states, fielded a massive 110,000-strong hoplite army to defeat the Persians.
• The battle was fierce and intense, but the Greeks strategically used the terrain to offset the Persian numerical advantage and secured a decisive victory, marking the end of the Greco-Persian Wars.

The Golden Age of Ancient Greece

• After the Persian War, life in ancient Greece flourished, and a golden age of culture began.
• The Parthenon, an architectural wonder, was built on the Athenian Acropolis, showcasing the wealth and culture of Athens.
• The theater also thrived, with the state sponsoring significant poets to create stories for the Athenian festival, the City Dionysia.

The Peloponnesian War

• Athens and Sparta formed alliances, leading to war in 434 BCE, with the Battle of Siblos and the Battle of Pylos.
• A short peace was negotiated in 421 BCE, but it did not last, and Athens launched an expedition to Sicily, which ultimately failed.

The Rise of Alexander the Great

• In 356 BCE, Alexander the Great was born in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II and Queen Olympias.
• Aristotle, a renowned philosopher, tutored Alexander, introducing him to the scientific method and shaping his future conquests.
• After his father's assassination, Alexander took over, seeking to maintain his family's power and conquer Persia.

Conquests of Alexander the Great

• Alexander marched 240 miles in 14 days to Thebes, which refused to surrender, and he razed the city to the ground, killing 6,000 and selling the rest into slavery.
• He faced Darius III at the Battle of Issus, defeating him and capturing key cities, including the Port of Tire.
• Alexander then faced Darius III again at the Battle of Gaugamela, winning a decisive victory and capturing the Persian capital of Babylon.
• He continued his campaign, conquering much of Mesopotamia, Iran, and Afghanistan, but his troops eventually refused to continue, and he turned back.

The Mauryan Empire

• In India, the Mauryan Empire emerged, spanning modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.
• Ashoka the Great, a conqueror, turned to Buddhism after a brutal war, and his empire became known for supporting Buddhist teachings and promoting non-violence.Here are the study notes in detailed bullet points:
• Ancient Greek and Roman Empires*
• Alexander the Great spread Greek ideas and culture across the land, leading to the rise of Greek ideals and the Western cultures we see today.
• After Alexander's death, his generals divided the empire into three major empires: the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in the East, and the Antigonids in Greece.
• The Seleucid Empire, under King Antiochus III, encompassed a vast territory from modern-day Turkey to modern-day Pakistan.
• Rise of the Roman Empire*
• The Roman Empire, under the leadership of Lucius Cornelius Sula, besieged and conquered Athens, marking the beginning of Rome's expansion.
• General Pompey was tasked with capturing Jerusalem and the region of Galilee, leading to the Roman occupation of the region.
• Julius Caesar was appointed governor of the Roman province of Gaul (modern-day France and Belgium) and conquered the Celtic tribes living there.
• Caesar's assassination led to a power struggle, and Octavian (later known as Augustus) emerged as the undisputed ruler of Rome.
• Jesus Christ and the Early Christian Church*
• Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem during the reign of Emperor Augustus, as recorded in the Gospel of Luke.
• The Roman Emperor Nero blamed the Great Fire of Rome on the Christians, leading to persecution and execution of Christians.
• The Apostle Paul spread Christianity throughout the Mediterranean, and the early Christian Church was established.
• Roman Empire and its Downfall*
• Emperor Trajan expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent, spanning from modern-day Britain to the Persian Gulf.
• The empire faced crises, including the Jewish Revolt, and the construction of Hadrian's Wall to keep out the Picts and Celts.
• The empire was eventually divided into four regions, with each region governed by a separate emperor (the Tetrarchy).
• Rise of the Byzantine Empire*
• Constantine the Great established the Byzantine Empire, with its capital in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).
• The Edict of Milan (313 AD) granted religious tolerance to Christians, and the Nicene Creed was established.
• The Byzantine Empire continued to expand its territory, conquering Italy, North Africa, and Spain.
• The Huns and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire*
• The Huns, a nomadic tribe, invaded the Roman Empire, leading to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD.
• The Visigoths, led by Alaric, sacked Rome in 410 AD, marking the beginning of the end of the Western Roman

Human Evolution and Early Civilizations

• Human evolution began around 3 billion years ago, progressing from a single-celled organism to a complex species.
• The first hominids, including early humans, emerged around 6 million years ago.
• Homo erectus was the first species to leave Africa and colonize other parts of the world around 1.9 million years ago.

Mesopotamia and the Emergence of Agriculture

• The city of Uruk in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) developed agriculture around 4000 BCE, allowing people to settle and create a civilization.
• The people of Uruk harvested cereal grains like wheat and barley using a hand mill.
• This marked a significant shift from hunting and gathering, allowing for a more stable food source.

Sumerian Civilization

• The Sumerian king Gilgamesh ruled around 3000 BCE and was the subject of the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest surviving works of literature.
• The Sumerians developed a system of writing, architecture, and governance.

Indus Valley Civilization

• The Indus Valley Civilization flourished between 3300 and 1300 BCE in modern-day Pakistan and northwestern India.
• The civilization was known for its advanced toilet system, with a seat and a chute leading to an underground drainage system.

Ancient Egypt

• Pharaoh Snefaru built the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid in 2613 BCE.
• Pharaoh Khufu built the Great Pyramid of Giza in 2589 BCE.
• The Egyptians developed a system of mummification to preserve the bodies of the dead.
• The pharaohs believed in an afterlife, and the pyramids were built to help them in the next life.

Babylon and the Code of Hammurabi

• King Hammurabi of Babylon created the Code of Hammurabi in 1772 BCE, a set of laws that governed the empire.
• The code included laws for justice, family, and commerce.

The Hittite Empire

• The Hittite Empire emerged around 1680 BCE in modern-day Turkey.
• King Labarnis united the Hittite city-states under a single rule.
• The Hittites developed a system of writing and a code of laws.

Mycenaean Greece

• Mycenaean Greece flourished from 1600 BCE to 1100 BCE.
• The city-states of Mycenaean Greece were dominated by an elite warrior society.
• The Linear B script, an early form of Greek writing, was developed.

Ancient Egypt and the Hittite Empire

• Pharaoh Ramses II and King Hattusili III of the Hittite Empire signed a peace treaty in 1279 BCE, the first recorded in history.

The Olmec Civilization

• The Olmec Civilization emerged between 1200 BCE and 400 BCE in modern-day Mexico.
• The Olmecs developed a system of writing and architecture.

The Zhou Dynasty in China

• The Zhou Dynasty in China began to decline in 256 BCE.
• The Zhou Dynasty developed a system of feudalism and a philosophy of the Mandate of Heaven.

Ancient Greece and Rome

• The city-states of ancient Greece began to colonize the Mediterranean around 800 BCE.
• The Romans emerged as a powerful city-state, and according to legend, Romulus and Remus founded Rome in 753 BCE.

The Persian Empire

• Cyrus the Great conquered the Medes Empire and founded the Persian Empire in 550 BCE.
• The Persians developed a system of governance and administration.

Sparta and Athens

• Sparta and Athens emerged as powerful city-states in ancient Greece.
• Sparta was a military powerhouse, and Athens developed a system of democracy.

The Buddha and Eastern Philosophy

• Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, was born in the kingdom of Magadha in India around 500 BCE.
• The Buddha developed the concept of Enlightenment, which is a state of inner peace and understanding of the universe.

The Battle of Marathon

• The Persians, led by Darius, invaded Greece and were defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE.

The Greco-Persian Wars

• The Persians were defeated at the Battle of Marathon, where an Athenian messenger named Pheidippides ran 26.2 miles to Athens to announce the victory.