Human Body Fluids and Homeostasis
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Questions and Answers

Which component makes up the major part of the extracellular fluid (ECF)?

  • Intracellular fluid
  • Blood cells
  • Interstitial fluid (correct)
  • Lymphatic fluid

    • If a male weighs 70 kg, how much total body water does he have?

  • 42 L (correct)
  • 14 L
  • 30 L
  • 56 L

    • What is the charge of proteins found in intracellular fluid?

  • Positive charge
  • No charge
  • Neutral charge
  • Negative charge (correct)

    • What is the volume of plasma in a male with a total extracellular fluid of 14 L?

    <p>3.5 L</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of body fluid composition, how does the interstitial fluid (ISF) compare to plasma?

    <p>It comprises a larger portion than plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes homeostasis?

    <p>The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fluid environment surrounds body cells?

    <p>Extracellular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of molecules can readily pass through the cell membrane via simple diffusion?

    <p>Oxygen (O2)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines the degree of diffusion for substances across the cell membrane?

    <p>The lipid solubility of the substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances is unable to diffuse freely across the cell membrane by simple diffusion?

    <p>Glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of diffusion requires specific membrane proteins to assist the movement of substances?

    <p>Facilitated diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances typically uses facilitated diffusion to cross the cell membrane?

    <p>Glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component of the cell membrane is primarily responsible for its amphipathic nature?

    <p>Phospholipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances can cross the cell membrane without any assistance?

    <p>Lipid-soluble substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required for active transport to occur across the cell membrane?

    <p>Energy in the form of ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process allows water to move across the cell membrane?

    <p>Osmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes facilitated diffusion compared to simple diffusion?

    <p>It utilizes specific carrier proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a situation of equilibrium across the cell membrane, what occurs in terms of molecular movement?

    <p>Net movement is zero.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of molecules primarily cannot pass through the lipid bilayer without aid?

    <p>Biologically relevant molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes passive (physical) processes?

    <p>Does not require ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fundamental unit of life that can perform necessary life processes?

    <p>Cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of organization is characterized by atoms and molecules?

    <p>Chemical Level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body?

    <p>Cardiac Muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue is responsible for exchanging substances between the cell and its environment?

    <p>Epithelial Tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ system is composed of multiple organs that work together for a common function?

    <p>Organ System Level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of muscle tissue?

    <p>Nerve Muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does tissue consist of?

    <p>A group of similar cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the largest organizational level in the human body?

    <p>Organismal Level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of an organ?

    <p>Consists of two or more types of primary tissues that function together.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a body system?

    <p>Two or more organs working together to perform various functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What vital function does the respiratory system perform?

    <p>It takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does total body water content change with age?

    <p>It decreases as age increases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about body fluids is accurate for a 100 kg male?

    <p>His body water would equal 60 kg, based on 60% of body weight.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the reasons why water is the favored liquid in the human body?

    <p>Water is an excellent solvent for many body electrolytes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which body fluid characteristic changes significantly based on gender?

    <p>Total body water content, with females having less.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature of water contributes to its role in biological systems?

    <p>Water facilitates redox reactions critical for biological processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the basic structural unit that can perform life's necessary processes?

    <p>Cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of organization includes groups of similar cells working together?

    <p>Tissue level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do smooth muscles primarily have in the body?

    <p>To constrict blood vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the composition of an organ?

    <p>Composed of two or more types of tissues working together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a type of tissue?

    <p>Stem tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the ribs in relation to the chest cavity?

    <p>To protect the heart and lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue initiates and transmits electrical impulses throughout the body?

    <p>Nerve tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At which organizational level do atoms and molecules operate?

    <p>Chemical level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which glucose is transported in the renal proximal tubules?

    <p>Co-transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property is NOT true for simple diffusion?

    <p>Requires special membrane proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical resting potential of a neuronal cell membrane?

    <p>-70 mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement characterizes active transport?

    <p>Requires specific membrane proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What influences the basic signaling properties of neurons?

    <p>The resting potential of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following tissues is responsible for controlling muscle contraction and gland secretion in the stomach?

    <p>Nervous tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason that elderly individuals typically have a lower total body water percentage?

    <p>Increase in fat tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of body water is typical for a healthy female adult?

    <p>50-55%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ system is primarily involved in taking in oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide?

    <p>Respiratory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does connective tissue play within an organ?

    <p>Binding all the other tissues together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the total body water percentage typically found in a newborn?

    <p>80%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a body fluid elimination system?

    <p>Circulatory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of water makes it difficult to boil or freeze?

    <p>Specific heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of body system consists of related organs with a shared function?

    <p>Organ system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does total body water content in females generally compare to males?

    <p>Lower in females due to fat mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the function of the phospholipid bilayer in the cell membrane?

    <p>It permits selective permeability for lipid-soluble materials.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the 'heads' of phospholipids in the cell membrane?

    <p>They are hydrophilic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process does not require ATP for substance movement across the cell membrane?

    <p>Facilitated diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In passive transport, what direction does the net movement of substances occur?

    <p>Down a concentration gradient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily influences the ability of a substance to pass through the lipid bilayer?

    <p>The size and charge of the molecule.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about active transport processes?

    <p>They require energy to move substances against a gradient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about simple diffusion?

    <p>It allows movement of small, neutral molecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of phospholipids makes them amphipathic?

    <p>They consist of non-polar tails and polar heads.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport involves moving water across the cell membrane?

    <p>Osmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected outcome when equilibrium is reached across a cell membrane?

    <p>The net movement of particles is zero.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of homeostasis in the body?

    <p>To maintain a constant internal environment despite external changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors is NOT homeostatically regulated?

    <p>External atmospheric pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main components of homeostatic control mechanisms?

    <p>Receptor, Control Center, Effector</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of feedback loop is primarily relied upon for homeostasis?

    <p>Negative feedback loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when successful compensation for a deviation in homeostasis is achieved?

    <p>Homeostasis is reestablished</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the nature of homeostasis?

    <p>Homeostasis involves dynamic changes around a setpoint.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of an effector in homeostasis?

    <p>It initiates responses to adjust internal conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might result from a failure to compensate in homeostasis?

    <p>Illness and potential death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physiological measurement is primarily NOT a part of homeostasis?

    <p>External weather patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when a sensor detects a deviation in homeostasis?

    <p>The Control Center is activated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate percentage of total body weight made up by extracellular fluid (ECF)?

    <p>20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of intracellular fluid (ICF) compared to extracellular fluid (ECF)?

    <p>Higher potassium concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes how intracellular fluid is 'conditioned'?

    <p>By interstitial fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the effector in homeostatic control mechanisms?

    <p>To elicit responses that alter internal conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT homeostatically regulated in the human body?

    <p>Oxygen levels in the atmosphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of body fluids, which fluid is a major component of extracellular fluid?

    <p>Interstitial fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does homeostasis differ from static equilibrium?

    <p>Homeostasis is dynamic and changes around a set point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to the relatively stable internal environment of the body?

    <p>Homeostasis mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one consequence of failure to maintain homeostasis?

    <p>Pathophysiological conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much total water is present in a male body weighing 70 kg?

    <p>42 L</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the homeostatic control mechanism sets the desired value for a physiological parameter?

    <p>Control Center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is water considered beneficial in physiological processes?

    <p>It serves as a universal solvent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological variable is a crucial aspect of maintaining homeostasis that relates to fluid balance?

    <p>Electrolyte concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which fluids move between the intracellular fluid (ICF) and the interstitial fluid (ISF)?

    <p>Osmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism primarily facilitates the dynamic nature of homeostasis?

    <p>Negative feedback loops</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the concentration of nutrients in homeostasis?

    <p>It must be maintained within narrow limits for survival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of feedback mechanism is primarily used for maintaining conditions that need frequent adjustments?

    <p>Negative feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process represents a feed-forward control mechanism in the human body?

    <p>Shivering before entering cold water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of insulin in the body?

    <p>Decrease blood glucose levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following examples illustrates positive feedback?

    <p>Blood clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes differentiation in multicellular organisms?

    <p>It is the mechanism through which cells specialize for specific functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback in physiological systems?

    <p>Positive feedback increases the initial change, while negative feedback suppresses it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of feed-forward control in physiological processes?

    <p>It prepares the body for anticipated changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about body fluids is true?

    <p>Extracellular fluid accounts for the majority of total body water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which types of molecules can pass through the cell membrane via simple diffusion?

    <p>Oxygen and steroids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily determines the degree of diffusion for substances across the cell membrane?

    <p>Lipid solubility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances typically undergoes facilitated diffusion across the membrane?

    <p>Potassium ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property is characteristic of facilitated diffusion as compared to simple diffusion?

    <p>It involves specific membrane proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic that distinguishes simple diffusion from other forms of transport across the cell membrane?

    <p>It occurs with a concentration difference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What essential function does the cell membrane perform related to substance movement?

    <p>Controlling movements of substances in and out of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following ions has a higher concentration outside the cell than inside?

    <p>Sodium (Na+)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the basic functions of a cell?

    <p>Transporting molecules across the blood-brain barrier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which cellular component are proteins synthesized?

    <p>Ribosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary composition of the cell membrane?

    <p>Proteins and phospholipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the cell membrane described as 'mechanically weak'?

    <p>It is easy to break.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell function is impaired in nerve and muscle cells during their development?

    <p>Reproduction of new cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does cholesterol play in the cell membrane?

    <p>Increases membrane fluidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of connective tissue within an organ?

    <p>Binding other tissues together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes a body system?

    <p>A group of related organs with a common function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is water considered an excellent solvent in the body?

    <p>It can dissolve a wide range of substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does total body water content differ between genders?

    <p>Males typically have a higher percentage of body water than females</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to total body water content as a person ages?

    <p>It decreases as age increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tissue is primarily responsible for the contraction of the stomach?

    <p>Smooth muscle tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the respiratory system primarily serve?

    <p>Facilitates the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of epithelial tissue found in organs like the stomach?

    <p>Covers surfaces and lines cavities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of negative feedback mechanisms in the body?

    <p>To suppress changes and maintain stability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of positive feedback?

    <p>Blood clotting during an injury.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does feed-forward control operate in physiological systems?

    <p>It anticipates changes and initiates responses in advance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does differentiation refer to in the context of cells?

    <p>The specialization of cells for specific functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is primarily considered a feed-forward response?

    <p>Shivering in cold water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic defines positive feedback mechanisms?

    <p>Amplification of an initial stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key difference between negative feedback and positive feedback?

    <p>Negative feedback primarily manages stable conditions while positive feedback initiates rapid responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does the body utilize adaptive feedback control?

    <p>By preparing for impending changes before they occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of transport involves the movement of substances from lower to higher concentration using energy?

    <p>Active transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes primary active transport?

    <p>Involves direct use of ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In secondary active transport, what serves as the energy source for 'uphill' movement?

    <p>Electrochemical gradients created by primary active transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of primary active transport?

    <p>Na+/K+ pump</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary result of the Na+/K+ pump's action in cells?

    <p>Creation of an electrochemical gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the conformational change in carrier proteins during active transport?

    <p>Binding of the transported molecule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required for secondary active transport to occur?

    <p>Concentration gradient established by primary transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many sodium ions are typically transported out of the cell by the Na+/K+ pump?

    <p>Three</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nani anajulikana kama mfumo unaohusisha viungo vinavyofanya kazi pamoja kwa ajili ya kusudi moja?

    <p>Mfumo wa mifupa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachofanya kazi kwa pamoja ndani ya tumbo ili kudhibiti mikazo ya misuli na utoaji wa tezi?

    <p>Kuna tishu za mishipa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni nini kinachopungua kadri umri unavyozidi kuongezeka?

    <p>Yaliyomo kwenye maji mwilini</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni sehemu gani ya mwili inayohusika na kunyonya chakula na kuondoa chakula kisichopatikana?

    <p>Mfumo wa chakula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kwanini maji ni kioevu kinachopendekezwa zaidi mwilini kuliko vini vingine?

    <p>Maji yana uwezo mzuri wa kuyeyuka vitu</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni aina gani ya tishu zinazohusika na kujenga na kuunganisha tishu zingine mwilini?

    <p>Tishu za connective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinaweza kuathiri kiwango cha maji mwilini kwa mwanamke mzima mwenye afya?

    <p>Kiwango cha mafuta mwilini</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mfumo gani unachukua jukumu la kutoa CO2 na kuchukua O2 katika mwili?

    <p>Mfumo wa kupumua</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini ambayo haielezei homeostasis?

    <p>Ni hali ambayo haibadiliki kamwe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinatokea wakati osmosis inapotokea kwenye seli katika mazingira ya hypotonic?

    <p>Seli inaingia maji.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni sehemu zipi tatu zenye jukumu katika mifumo ya kudhibiti homeostatic?

    <p>Receptor, Control Center, Effector</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni ipi kati ya hizi mara nyingi inaboresha homostasis?

    <p>Negative Feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni kipimo kipi kinachotumiwa kuelezea osmotic pressure ndani ya seli za binadamu?

    <p>0.9% ya suluhisho la sodiamu kloridi.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kipimo kipi kinadhihirisha hali ya isotonic kati ya miminika ya ndani ya seli na ile ya nje?

    <p>OP wa miminika ya nje ni sawa na OP wa ndani.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kigezo cha msingi kinachodhibiti mabadiliko ya joto la mwili?

    <p>Upeo wa mabadiliko ya kiwango cha joto.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kwanini suluhisho la NaCl isotonic ni bora kuliko suluhisho la isoosmotic lenye suluhisho linaloweza kupenya kama urea?

    <p>NaCl inashawishi mchakato wa osmosis zaidi.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachoweza kutokea ikiwa homeostasis haiwezi kudumishwa?

    <p>Madhara ya afya yanaweza kutokea.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni lipi kati ya yafuatayo linalofafanua hali ya hypertonic?

    <p>OP ya miminika ya nje ni juu kuliko OP ya ndani.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachowakilisha sehemu za nyumbani zinazofanya kazi pamoja katika kudumisha homeostasis?

    <p>Mifumo ya usawa.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni ipi miongoni mwa hizi ni mojawapo ya vipengele vinavyodhibitiwa homeostatically?

    <p>Concentration ya O2.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini husababisha mabadiliko ya ndani yanayoelekea kurejesha hali ya kawaida?

    <p>Majibu ya effectors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachofanya usambazaji wa molekuli kupitia mchanganyiko wa carrier?

    <p>Molekuli hujifunga na carrier na kubadili umbo lake.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni ipi kati ya hizi ni sifa ya channel proteins?

    <p>Ni chaguo kubwa kwa molekuli zenye mchanganyiko maalum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kigela kimwe cha co-transporters ni?

    <p>Inahitaji protini maalum ya membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini hufanyika wakati gate ya channel proteins inafunguliwa?

    <p>Inachochea ufanyika kwa mabadiliko ya kinasaba.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Katika usambazaji wa kirahisi, ni nini kinachohitajika kuvunja usawa wa mkusanyiko?

    <p>Tofauti ya mkusanyiko wa molekuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni ipi kati ya hizi sifa si ya kusafirisha rahisi?

    <p>Inahitaji protini maalum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachohakikisha kwamba channel proteins ni chaguo sahihi kwa molekuli maalum?

    <p>Kuwa na hakiki maalum kwa molekuli tofauti.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni kwa kiasi gani membrane ya seli ya neva inashikilia potenda ya resting?

    <p>-70 mV.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Je, ni wapi nishati haihitajiki katika usambazaji?

    <p>Katika usambazaji wa kirahisi.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachofanya usafirishaji wa aktivitiy kuwa tofauti na wa rahisi na wa kuruhusiwa?

    <p>Inahitaji nishati.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni nini hasa kinachobadilisha mali za ishara za neurons?

    <p>Mabadiliko katika membrane resting potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni mojawapo ya njia zinazopitisha ione za ions kupitia membrane?

    <p>Usambazaji wa kirahisi.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini husababisha mabadiliko ya kinasaba katika channel proteins?

    <p>Kuunganisha kwa molekuli nyingine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni sifa ipi inayoingiliana na usafirishaji wa aktivitiy?

    <p>Usafirishaji ni wa mwelekeo wa upinzani.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachohitajika kwa usafirishaji wa sukari kupitia renal proximal tubules?

    <p>Co-transporting na Na+.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Haitumii nishati katika mitindo gani ya usafirishaji?

    <p>Usafirishaji wa faciliti.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni level gani ya shirika inayoelezewa na orodha ya viungo vinavyofanya kazi pamoja kwa kazi fulani?

    <p>Mfumo wa Mwili</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Je, ni vigezo gani vinavyoathiri kiasi cha maji mwilini kwa mtu mzima?

    <p>Umri na jinsia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini inayopunguza kiasi cha maji mwilini kadri umri unavyozidi kuongezeka?

    <p>Kulingana na umri</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachofanya maji kuwa kinywaji bora kwa mwili wa binadamu?

    <p>Kuwa na ugumu wa kuchemsha</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Je, tishu ipi katika tumbo inasimamia mkondo wa misuli na kutoa habari kuhusu secretion ya tezi?

    <p>Tishu ya Neva</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini mfano wa kiungo kilichofanya kazi kwa kushirikiana na tishu mbili au zaidi?

    <p>Moyo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni mfumo gani wa mwili unaohusika na kuchukua chakula na kuondoa chakula kisichonyonwa?

    <p>Mfumo wa Umia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini hasa hufanya maji kuwa solvent bora katika mwili?

    <p>Kuwa na michakato sahihi ya kemikali</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachochangia kiwango cha maji katika seli za ndani (ICF)?

    <p>Kuwa na protini zenye chaji hasi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni kiasi gani cha maji ya mwili kinachohusisha ECF katika mtu mwenye uzito wa kg 70?

    <p>14 Kg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachofanya ECF kuwa na maji mengi zaidi kwenye nafasi za interstitial?

    <p>Kuwepo kwa mazingira ya nje</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini maana ya 'homeostasis' katika mwili?

    <p>Kudumisha mazingira ya ndani yenye utulivu</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni muundo gani unaounda nafasi ya maji ya nje ya seli?

    <p>ISF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachofanya plasma kuwa muhimu kwenye ECF?

    <p>Kuwapo kwa virutubisho na taka</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kipande gani kinaonyesha tofauti kati ya ECF na ICF?

    <p>ECF ina mazingira ya nje yenye ioni nyingi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini hufanya ECF kuwa na chaji hasi kuliko ICF?

    <p>Kuwapo kwa protini zenye chaji hasi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinachoweza kuchangia katika kudumisha mazingira ya ndani ya seli?

    <p>Nutriti na bidhaa za taka</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mchakato gani unahusishwa na kurekebisha hali za ndani ili kufikia homeostasis?

    <p>Mizunguko hasi ya kigezo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kati ya sehemu zifuatazo, ipi sio sehemu ya mifumo ya kudhibiti homeostasis?

    <p>Mfumo wa Uhamasishaji</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini inamaanisha kuwa homeostasis ni hali inayobadilika?

    <p>Ni mchakato unaoendelea wa kurekebisha</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni nini kifanyike ili kuweza kurejesha homeostasis pale hali hizo zinapovunjika?

    <p>Kurekebisha uzito wa damu</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini ni moja ya vipengele vya kudhibiti mazingira ya ndani zilizo na umuhimu?

    <p>Kudumisha shinikizo la damu</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini kinasababisha ugonjwa au kifo katika mchakato wa homeostasis?

    <p>Kushindwa kwa mchakato wa fidia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nini ni jukumu la mpokeaji katika mfumo wa kudhibiti homeostasis?

    <p>Kutoa taarifa kuhusu mabadiliko</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lipi gani linaweza kuendesha kwa urahisi ndani ya membrane ya seli?

    <p>Lipi linaloyeyuka kwenye mafuta</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni mchakato gani unaohitaji nishati ya ATP ili kusonga molekuli kupitia membrane ya seli?

    <p>Usafirishaji wa Kisarishaji</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni sehemu gani ya phospholipid ambayo ni hydrophilic?

    <p>Kichwa cha lipidi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni mchakato gani unaohusisha harakati za molekuli chini ya mwelekeo wa gradient ya mkusanyiko?

    <p>Diffusion ya rahisi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni lipidi gani inayoleta uwezo wa kupita kwa urahisi kwenye membrane ya seli?

    <p>Phospholipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mchakato wa osmosis unatumika vipi katika kusafirisha maji?

    <p>Kupitia membrane ya phospholipid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni mchakato gani unaofanyika bila hitaji la nishati ya ATP?

    <p>Diffusion ya Rahisi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Kipengele gani kinasimamia upitishaji wa molekuli zilizo na maji ndani ya membrane ya seli?

    <p>Njia za protini</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni ipi kati ya hizi ni mfano wa usafirishaji wa nishati ya kwanza?

    <p>Usafirishaji wa Ca++ katika membrane ya seli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Katika usafirishaji wa pili, nishati inapatikana vipi?

    <p>Kutokana na tofauti za mkusanyiko wa ion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni ipi kati ya hizi si kipengele cha usafirishaji wa kwanza?

    <p>Usafirishaji wa glucose kwa kutumia protini za pembeni.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sawa na kiwango cha sodium kinachopatikana kwenye seli kinachozungumzia nini?

    <p>Kinazidisha kiwango cha potassium ndani ya seli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mchakato wa usafirishaji wa Na+/Glucose unategemea nini?

    <p>Uwepo wa Na+ na glucose kwa wakati mmoja.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni ipi kati ya hizi inayoelezea mchakato wa usafirishaji wa kwanza?

    <p>Inahitaji kuharibika kwa ATP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Je, mchakato wa usafirishaji wa H+/K+ una lengo gani?

    <p>Kudhibiti kiwango cha asidi katika tumbo.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ni shingo ipi inayoelezewa na kusaga kwa Na+/K+ pump?

    <p>Inasafirisha 3 sodium (Na+) nje na 2 potasiamu (K+) ndani.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Body Fluids

    • Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid environment outside the cells (1/3 of total body water).
    • ECF contains ions, oxygen, nutrients, and waste products.
    • Two components of ECF:
      • Plasma (inside blood cells)
      • Interstitial fluid (surrounding cells)
    • Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid contained within all body cells (2/3 of total body water).
    • ICF is rich in potassium (K+) and has a lower sodium (Na+) concentration.
    • ICF contains negatively charged proteins.

    Balancing Internal and External Environments

    • Cells continuously exchange nutrients and waste products with their surroundings.
    • ICF is influenced by interstitial fluid, which is in turn affected by plasma, ultimately influenced by the organ systems it passes through.
    • This dynamic interplay ensures a stable internal environment.
    • Internal environment refers to the fluid surrounding cells (extracellular fluids)

    Homeostasis

    • Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a relatively constant and stable internal environment, specifically the extracellular fluids.
    • This stability is achieved through intricate physiological mechanisms, each organ's structure being designed for optimal functional performance.
      • Example: The chest cavity protects the heart and lungs, and its movement facilitates breathing.
    • The body is structurally organized into a whole functional unit, enabling homeostasis.

    Levels of Organization

    • The body is organized into these levels:
      • Chemical level: Involves atoms and molecules; basic building blocks of life.
      • Cellular level: Cells are the fundamental living unit, performing essential life processes.
      • Tissue level: Tissues are groups of similar cells working together for a specific function.
      • Organ level: Organs are composed of two or more tissue types, coordinated for a specialized task.
      • Body system level: A group of related organs functioning together.
      • Organismic level: This refers to the whole human body, comprised of various organ systems.

    Levels of Organization (Continued)

    • Chemical Level Examples:
      • Atoms: Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen.
      • Molecules: Water, carbon dioxide, carbohydrates (CHO), proteins.
    • Cellular Level Examples:
      • Muscle cells, nerve cells.
    • Tissue Level Examples:
      • Epithelial tissue (covering), connective tissue (support), muscle tissue (movement), nervous tissue (communication).
    • Organ Level Examples:
      • Skin, femur, heart, kidney.
      • Example: Stomach:
        • Epithelium: Lines the stomach’s inner surface.
        • Smooth muscle: Contributes to the stomach's wall.
        • Nervous tissue: Controls muscle contractions and glandular secretions.
        • Connective tissue: Binds all tissues together.
    • Body System Level Examples:
      • Skeletal system, digestive system.
    • Organismic level:
      • The human body.

    Levels of Organization (Continued)

    • The body has three openings to the external environment:
      • Respiratory system: Takes in oxygen and eliminates CO2.
      • Digestive system: Processes food and eliminates unabsorbed material.
      • Urinary system: Eliminates waste products from the body.

    Body Fluids (Continued)

    • Total body water is approximately 60% of the body weight in a healthy adult, but this percentage can vary with age and gender.
    • Water content decreases with age; newborn's body is about 80% fluid.
    • Women have a lower water content (50-55%) than men due to higher fat tissue percentage.
    • Water's properties make it ideal for biological systems:
      • High specific heat: Regulates temperature.
      • Capillary action: Essential for processes like tear production and breastfeeding.
      • Excellent solvent: Enables dissolving and transport of ions (Na+, K+, Cl-).
      • Redox reactions: Involved in killing pathogens.

    Cells

    • The cell membrane allows passage of certain substances while restricting others.
    • Lipid-soluble materials can cross the membrane, while water-soluble (lipid-insoluble) substances require channels.

    Cell Membrane

    • The cell membrane is primarily composed of phospholipids, which are amphipathic molecules.
    • Phospholipid bilayer:
      • Hydrophilic (water-soluble) heads form the surfaces.
      • Hydrophobic (water-insoluble) tails form the interior.
    • This structure makes the membrane permeable to lipid-soluble substances.

    Movements into and Out of the Cell

    • Passive (Physical) Processes:
      • Net movement down a concentration gradient, from high to low concentration.
      • Does not require energy (ATP).
      • Includes:
        • Simple diffusion
        • Facilitated diffusion
        • Osmosis (only for water)
    • Active (Physiological) Processes:
      • Net movement against a concentration gradient, from low to high concentration.
      • Requires energy (ATP).
      • Includes:
        • Primary active transport
        • Secondary active transport
    • Note: At equilibrium, the net movement is zero.
    • Except for small, neutral molecules, most biologically relevant substances cannot readily pass through the cell membrane and require facilitated transport.

    Simple Diffusion

    • Cell membrane is permeable to:
      • Non-polar molecules (oxygen).
      • Lipid-soluble molecules (steroids).
      • Small polar covalent bonds (carbon dioxide).
      • Water (small size and lack of charge).
    • Degree of diffusion depends on lipid solubility.
    • Cell membrane is impermeable to:
      • Large polar molecules (glucose).
      • Charged inorganic ions (sodium).

    Simple Diffusion (Continued)

    • Substances pass through intermolecular spaces in the membrane (simple diffusion), primarily lipid-soluble substances and gases).
    • This occurs whenever there is a concentration difference across the membrane (the membrane is permeable to the diffusing substance).
    • Simple diffusion is an energy-independent process.

    Facilitated Diffusion

    • Facilitated diffusion involves the movement of lipid-insoluble or water-soluble substances across the cell membrane.
    • It occurs down their concentration gradient with the assistance of membrane proteins.
    • Substances transported by facilitated diffusion include:
      • Potassium (K+).
      • Sodium (Na+).
      • Calcium (Ca2+).
      • Glucose.
      • Amino acids.
      • Urea.
    • Facilitated diffusion is also an energy-independent process.

    Levels of Organization

    • The human body is structurally organized into a whole functional unit, from the chemical to the organismic level.
    • The organismic level is made up of 12 systems.
    • Chemical level: comprises atoms and molecules, examples include Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, hydrogen, water, CO2, CHO, and Proteins.
    • Cellular level: the basic live organizational structure of the human body, the smallest unit that can perform life's necessary processes, examples include muscle cells and nerve cells.
    • Tissue level: a group of similar cells (structure & specialized functions) that work together on one task, examples include epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve tissues.
    • Organ level: consists of two or more types of primary tissues that function together to perform a particular function or functions, examples include skin, femur, heart, kidney, stomach.
    • Body System level: a collection of related organs with a common function, sometimes an organ is part of more than one system, examples include skeletal system and digestive system.
    • Organismic level: the human (one living individual).

    Body Fluids

    • The total body water of a healthy adult is 60% of their body weight.
    • Water content decreases with age, a newborn has about 80% fluid content, while a healthy female adult has 50-55%.
    • Water's properties make it essential for the body:
      • Specific heat: water resists boiling and freezing, maintaining stable temperature.
      • Capillary action: aids in processes like tear production and breastfeeding.
      • Solvent: dissolves substances like Na+, K+, Cl- for transportation through channels.
      • Redox reactions: helps kill bugs through the production of “ROS.”

    Homeostasis & Controls

    • Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a dynamic steady state in the internal environment.
    • The internal environment remains relatively constant despite external changes.
    • Homeostasis is crucial for cell survival and function.
    • Each cell contributes to maintaining a stable internal environment.
    • Factors Homeostatically Regulated:
      • Concentration of nutrients (glucose, O2, CO2, and waste products)
      • Concentration of water, salt, and other electrolytes
      • pH
      • Blood volume and pressure
      • Body temperature
    • Success or failure to compensate for internal changes leads to:
      • Successful compensation: Homeostasis re-established.
      • Failure to compensate: Pathophysiology, illness, and potentially death.

    Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

    • These mechanisms involve three parts:
      • Receptor: provides information about the stimuli.
      • Control Center: Sets the ideal value for a specific factor (set point).
      • Effector: Responds to changes and corrects them.
    • Negative Feedback Loops are central to Homeostasis:
      • Sensor: Monitors internal conditions and detects changes.
      • Integrating center: Receives and integrates information.
      • Effector: Responds to changes, restoring the condition to normal levels.

    Cell Membrane

    • The cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing some substances to pass while blocking others.
    • It is permeable to lipid-soluble substances, and impermeable to lipid-insoluble (water-soluble) substances, which need to pass through channels.
    • The cell membrane's composition includes phospholipids, which are amphipathic molecules.
    • The phospholipid bilayer has water-soluble heads that form surfaces (hydrophilic), and water-insoluble tails that form the interior (hydrophobic), creating a barrier.

    Movement Into and Out of the Cell

    • Passive processes: Movement down a concentration gradient (high to low), does not require ATP.
      • Simple diffusion
      • Facilitated diffusion
      • Osmosis (for water only)
    • Active processes: Movement against a concentration gradient (low to high), needs energy.
      • Primary Active transport
      • Secondary Active transport

    Simple Diffusion

    • The movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, down the concentration gradient, without needing energy.

    Secondary Active Transport

    • Uses the energy stored in the concentration gradient of one molecule (typically Na+) to move another molecule, which can be in the same direction (co-transporter) or opposite direction (counter-transporter)

    Membrane Resting Potential

    • A constant potential difference across the resting cell membrane.
    • This potential is crucial for the cell's ability to fire an action potential, typically around -70 mV.
    • Neurons' basic signaling properties depend on changes in the resting potential.

    Maintaining a Dynamic Steady State

    • The internal environment of the body is relatively constant despite changes in the external environment.
    • This stability is called homeostasis and is essential for cell survival and function.
    • Homeostasis is achieved through dynamic regulation and adjustments within a narrow range.

    Factors Homeostatically Regulated

    • Concentration of nutrients: Glucose, oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and waste products.
    • Concentration of water, salt, and other electrolytes.
    • pH
    • Blood volume and pressure.
    • Body temperature.

    Homeostasis & Controls

    • Successful compensation: Homeostasis is reestablished through successful compensation.
    • Failure to compensate: Leads to pathophysiology which manifests as illness or death.

    Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

    • These mechanisms monitor the internal environment and correct deviations.
    • They are comprised of:
      • Receptor: Detects and provides information about the stimuli.
      • Control center: Determines the set point for the regulated factor.
      • Effector: Elicits responses that change conditions in the internal environment.

    Homeostasis: Dynamic Stability

    • Homeostasis is achieved through negative feedback loops.
    • These loops involve:
      • Sensor: Detects changes in the internal environment.
      • Integrating center (controller): Receives and integrates information.
      • Effector: Responds to changes and returns conditions to normal levels.

    Feedback Control

    • Negative feedback: Initial change triggers a response that suppresses the initial change.
      • Examples: body temperature, blood pressure, and glucose regulation.
    • Positive feedback: Initial change triggers a response that amplifies the initial change.
      • Examples: blood clotting, urination, LH surge before ovulation, sodium (Na+) inflow in nerve signals, uterine contraction during childbirth.

    Feed-forward Control

    • Anticipatory response to a change before feedback signals occur.
    • Example: Shivering before diving into cold water, salivation in response to the smell of food.

    Human Cell

    • Humans are multicellular organisms with 50-100 trillion cells.
    • Cells differentiate to specialize in specific functions.
    • Cellular specialization is essential for maintaining the body's overall function.

    Body Fluids

    • Extracellular fluid (ECF): Fluid outside the cells (1/3 of total body water)
      • Contains ions, oxygen, nutrients, and waste products.
      • Two components:
        • Plasma: Fluid inside blood vessels.
        • Interstitial fluid: Fluid surrounding cells.
    • Intracellular fluid (ICF): Fluid inside cells (2/3 of total body water)
      • Contains high potassium (K+) levels, low sodium (Na+), and negatively charged proteins.

    Balancing Internal and External Environments

    • Cells exchange nutrients and waste products with their surroundings.

    • The flow of substances is interconnected between:

      • Intracellular fluid (ICF): Conditioned by interstitial fluid.
      • Interstitial fluid (ISF): Conditioned by plasma.
      • Plasma: Conditioned by the organ systems it passes through and the external environment.

    • The internal environment is essentially the extracellular fluid.

    Levels of Organization

    • The human body is organized into multiple levels, starting with cells.
    • Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together.
    • Organs are composed of different tissues that work together to perform specific functions.
    • An example of an organ is the stomach, which contains epithelial, smooth muscle, nervous, and connective tissues.
    • Body systems are collections of related organs with a common function.
    • For example, the digestive system is composed of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
    • The human body is an organism, composed of all the body systems working together.

    Body Fluids

    • The total body water in a healthy adult is 60% of body weight.
    • The body water content depends on age and gender, with newborns having a higher percentage of body water than adults.
    • Water is important for several reasons.
      • It has a high specific heat, making it difficult to boil or freeze.
      • It exhibits capillary action, as seen in tears and breastfeeding.
      • It is an excellent solvent, allowing ions like Na+, K+, and Cl- to dissolve and pass through channels.
      • It is involved in redox reactions to kill bugs.

    Negative Feedback

    • Negative feedback mechanisms are used to maintain homeostasis in the body, where an initial change triggers a response that counteracts or reduces the change.
    • An example is blood glucose regulation.
      • When blood glucose levels rise after eating, the pancreas releases insulin.
      • Insulin lowers blood glucose levels, bringing them back to normal.

    Positive Feedback

    • Positive feedback mechanisms amplify the initial change, resulting in an escalating, self-perpetuating response.
    • These mechanisms are typically short-lived and do not require continuous adjustments.
    • Examples include:
      • Blood clotting
      • Urination
      • LH (luteinizing hormone) increase before ovulation
      • Na+ inflow in the genesis of nerve signals
      • Contraction of the uterus during childbirth (parturition)

    Feed-forward Control

    • Feed-forward control involves anticipating a change and preparing the body for it.
    • This proactive response occurs before feedback signals are received.
    • Examples include:
      • Shivering before diving into cold water.
      • Salivation in response to smelling food.

    Human Cell

    • The human body is multicellular, containing trillions of cells.
    • Cells specialize through a process called differentiation.
    • Differentiation leads to variations in cell size and shape, reflecting their unique functions.

    Basic Cell Functions

    • Cells perform essential functions:
      • Obtaining nutrients and oxygen from the environment.
      • Performing chemical reactions to provide energy for the cell.
      • Eliminating CO2 and waste products.
      • Synthesizing cellular components, such as proteins.
      • Controlling the movement of materials into and out of the cell.
      • Sensing and responding to environmental changes.
      • Reproduction (except for nerve and muscle cells).

    Specialized Cell Functions

    • Each cell type has a specialized function.
    • For example, white blood cells phagocytize foreign materials, while red blood cells transport oxygen.

    Cell Membrane

    • The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a thin and mechanically weak barrier surrounding each cell.
    • It functions to:
      • Maintain cell integrity.
      • Control the movement of substances in and out of the cell (selective permeability).
      • Regulate cell-cell interactions.
      • Act as an interface between the cytoplasm and the extracellular milieu.

    Cell Membrane Importance

    • The cell membrane is crucial because it creates a barrier between the intracellular fluid (ICF) and the extracellular fluid (ECF).
    • If the cell membrane ruptures, the cell dies.
    • The cell membrane maintains concentration differences between the ICF and ECF, including:
      • Higher K+ concentration inside than outside.
      • Higher Na+ concentration outside than inside.
      • Higher Cl- concentration outside than inside.
      • Higher Ca++ concentration outside than inside.
      • Higher protein concentration inside than outside.
      • Slightly alkaline pH outside (7.4) and neutral pH inside (7).

    Composition of the Cell Membrane

    • The cell membrane is mainly composed of:
      • Proteins (55%)
      • Phospholipids (25%)
      • Cholesterol (13%)

    Types of Membrane Transport

    • Simple Diffusion:

      • Occurs directly through the cell membrane.
      • Permeable to non-polar molecules (O2), lipid-soluble molecules (steroids), small polar covalent bonds (CO2), and water (small size, lack of charge).
      • The degree of diffusion depends primarily on lipid solubility.
      • It is energy independent.

    • Facilitated Diffusion:

      • Requires membrane proteins to transport substances across the membrane.
      • Transports lipid-insoluble or water-soluble substances down their concentration gradients.
      • Examples: K+, Na+, Ca2+, glucose, amino acids, urea.
      • It is energy independent.

    • Active Transport:

      • Moves substances across a membrane against their concentration gradients, requiring energy.
      • Requires carrier proteins.
      • Includes primary and secondary active transport.

    • Primary Active Transport:

      • Utilizes the direct breakdown of ATP or other high-energy compounds to power transport.
      • Examples: Na+/K+ pump, Ca++ active transport, active transport of H+ in gastric glands and kidneys, H+/K+ pump (proton pump in the stomach).

    • Secondary Active Transport:

      • Derives energy indirectly from concentration gradients established by primary active transport.
      • Examples: Na+/Glucose co-transport in epithelial cells of the intestine.

    Na+/K+ Pump

    • The Na+/K+ pump is a primary active transport system found in all cells.
    • It pumps three Na+ ions out of the cell and two K+ ions into the cell, maintaining a critical concentration gradient.
    • This 3:2 ratio ensures that the cell remains electrically negative, crucial for various cellular processes.

    Levels of Organization

    • An organ is made up of two or more tissue types that work together
    • A body system is a collection of organs that share a common function
    • The organism is a living individual
    • The human body has three openings to the external environment: the respiratory system, digestive system, and urinary system

    Body Fluids

    • Total water in a healthy adult is about 60% of body weight
    • Women have less total body water than men because they have more fatty tissue
    • Water's properties make it essential for life:
      • It has a high specific heat, so it's difficult to boil or freeze
      • It exhibits capillary action, which is important for tears and lactation
      • It's a good solvent, allowing for dissolution and transport of ions
      • It participates in redox reactions, which help kill pathogens.

    Homeostasis

    • The internal environment of the body is maintained within a narrow range despite external changes
    • All organs are designed to contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis
    • Factors regulated by homeostasis include:
      • Nutrient concentrations (glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste products)
      • Water, salt, and electrolyte concentrations
      • pH.
      • Blood volume and pressure
      • Body temperature

    Homeostasis & Controls

    • Successful compensation for internal changes leads to reestablishment of homeostasis
    • Failure to compensate results in illness, pathophysiology, and ultimately death

    Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

    • These mechanisms monitor and correct changes in the internal environment
    • They consist of three parts:
      • Receptor: detects changes in the internal environment
      • Control center: determines the set point for the regulated variable
      • Effector: elicits responses to alter the regulated variable

    Regulation of Internal Constancy = Homeostasis

    • Homeostasis is a dynamic process with fluctuations around a setpoint
    • It relies on negative feedback loops:
      • A sensor detects changes in the internal environment
      • The integrating center (controller) receives and processes the information
      • The effector responds to changes in the internal environment

    Feedback Control

    • Feedback control can be positive or negative

    Transported substance

    • Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport that utilizes carrier proteins or channels
    • Facilitated diffusion via carriers involves the binding of a substance to a carrier protein, which undergoes a conformational change to release the substance on the other side of the membrane
    • Facilitated diffusion through channels allows free movement of specific ions or molecules through channel proteins
    • Channels are selectively permeable and can be opened or closed by gated mechanisms, including voltage-gated channels and chemically-gated (ligand-gated) channels

    Osmosis

    • Osmosis refers to the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration
    • It's also the movement of water from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration
    • Osmosis is important at cellular level, causing cells to shrink or swell
    • Osmosis also occurs at the tissue level, through epithelial cells in the digestive system and kidney, as well as through capillary walls.

    Cell membrane Physiology

    • Osmotic Pressure (OP) is the concentration of solutes inside a cell
    • Humans cells have an osmotic pressure equivalent to 0.9% NaCl solution, referred to as "normal saline" or "physiologic saline"
    • Hypotonic: OP of the extracellular fluid is less than the OP of the intracellular fluid, causing water to enter the cell
    • Hypertonic: OP of the extracellular fluid is greater than the OP of the intracellular fluid, causing water to leave the cell
    • Isotonic: OP of the extracellular fluid is equal to the OP of the intracellular fluid, resulting in a hydrostatic equilibrium of water.

    Secondary Active Transport

    • Involves the use of the energy stored in the concentration gradient of one substance to move another substance across the cell membrane
    • Co-transporters move both substances in the same direction
    • Counter-transporters move substances in opposite directions

    Movements Into and Out of the Cell

    • Active transport requires energy and specific membrane proteins
    • Active transport enables the movement of substances against their concentration gradient
    • Facilitated diffusion requires specific membrane proteins but does not require energy
    • Simple diffusion does not require specific membrane proteins or energy
    • The difference between facilitated diffusion and active transport lies in the direction of substance movement relative to the concentration gradient.

    Membrane Resting Potential

    • A constant potential difference across the resting cell membrane
    • The cell's ability to fire an action potential is based on its ability to maintain the resting potential at ~ -70mV
    • Changes in resting potential influence the signaling properties of neurons

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    Description

    Explore the essential functions of body fluids, including extracellular and intracellular fluid. This quiz delves into the components, balance, and significance of body fluids in maintaining homeostasis. Test your knowledge on how these fluids interact to create a stable internal environment.

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