Human Anatomy: Thoracic Structures

Leukotriene receptor antagonists (LTRAs) can cause neuropsychiatric events (anxiety, depression, etc.), headaches, fever, fatigue, and increased upper respiratory issues.

Bronchial asthma treatment progresses in steps, starting with low-dose inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and formoterol, potentially escalating in subsequent stages to add-on therapies and biological agents based on patient symptom severity and response.

Asthma categorizes based on underlying causes to personalize treatment. Identifying phenotype helps choose the most effective treatment approach.

Severe asthma requires more personalized assessment and therapy. Patients with uncontrolled asthma should get a phenotyping assessment to adjust treatment plans.

An allergic asthma phenotype is associated with IgE-producing B cells. A monoclonal antibody against IgE could be beneficial for some patients.

Characterized by T-helper 2 cell activation and abnormal type 2 cytokine production (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13). Type 2 targeted biological therapies may be appropriate for this asthma type.

Omalizumab is an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody that blocks IgE from binding to mast cells, reducing allergic mediator release and lowering plasma IgE.

A mixture of 80% helium and 20% oxygen used to treat asthma. Helium's low density helps oxygen reach obstructed airways, reducing breathing effort.

A severe asthma attack where bronchodilators are ineffective. Requires immediate medical attention.

Involves hospitalization, oxygen therapy, inhaled bronchodilators, corticosteroids, and IV magnesium sulfate to relieve severe asthma symptoms.

Essential for managing asthma by reducing airway hyperresponsiveness. Corticosteroids are the primary choice for this purpose.

Can be inhaled, oral, or intravenous, depending on the severity and urgency of the asthma attack. Inhaled is the first line of treatment.

Targeted medications used for refractory asthma, based on asthma phenotyping and specific triggers. Used when traditional treatment fails.

A gradual approach to asthma treatment, starting with low-dose inhaled corticosteroids and stepping up therapy depending on the patient's response.

The Global Initiative for Asthma, a worldwide organization that provides updated guidelines and recommendations for asthma management.

This is the non-myelinated branch of the intercostal nerve, also known as the gray ramus. It carries postganglionic sympathetic fibers.

The intercostal muscles are supplied by the intercostal nerves. These nerves are responsible for controlling the movement of the ribs during breathing.

The parietal pleura, which lines the inner surface of the thoracic cavity, receives innervation from the intercostal nerves.

The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. It plays a crucial role in breathing.

The diaphragm has multiple origins: the sternal (xiphoid process), costal (lower ribs), and vertebral (crura and arcuate ligaments).

The collection of microorganisms that normally reside in the respiratory tract, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

Infections affecting the nose, sinuses, throat, and middle ear, often caused by viruses, bacteria, or fungi.

A bacterium responsible for diphtheria, an infectious disease characterized by formation of a thick, grayish membrane in the throat, which can lead to respiratory obstruction.

A toxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae that inhibits protein synthesis in cells, leading to cell death and tissue damage.

A bacterium responsible for pertussis (whooping cough), a highly contagious respiratory disease characterized by severe coughing spasms.

A bacterium that causes various infections, including otitis media, sinusitis, and pneumonia, but can also cause invasive diseases like meningitis.

Spread through respiratory droplets released into the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

Spread through direct contact with infected individuals or contaminated objects, like infected droplets, toys, or clothing.

Identifying the presence of the causative bacteria in respiratory samples using techniques like culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or serological tests.

A characteristic sign of diphtheria, where a thick, grayish membrane forms on the tonsils and pharyngeal wall, potentially obstructing breathing.

Diphtheria is caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, a bacterium that produces a toxin that damages heart, nerve, kidney, and liver cells.

Diphtheria presents with a sore throat, low-grade fever, and a thick, gray membrane covering the tonsils, pharynx, or nose.

Active immunization with diphtheria toxoid (DTaP vaccine) provides long-lasting protection against diphtheria.

Passive immunization, using diphtheria antitoxin, provides temporary protection for individuals exposed to diphtheria.

Antitoxin is the primary treatment for diphtheria, administered immediately if the disease is suspected.

Antibiotics like penicillin or erythromycin are used to kill the Corynebacterium diphtheriae bacteria.

Whooping cough, also known as pertussis, is caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis.

The Bordetella pertussis bacterium is a small, gram-negative coccobacillus with bipolar staining.

The Bordetella pertussis bacterium attaches to the respiratory epithelium using specialized attachment mechanisms.