Part 3

• Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system

Peptide Hormones

• Peptide hormones consist of amino acids linked in chains, which can range from small peptides to large proteins
• Peptide hormone receptors are located on the surface of the cell membrane

Amine/Monoamine Hormones

• Amine hormones are proteins derived from a single amino acid, typically tyrosine or tryptophan

Steroid Hormones

• Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol, are lipid-soluble
• Steroid hormone receptors are inside the target cell
• Steroid hormones can pass through the cell membrane and are slower-acting

Hormonal Action

• Hormonal action refers to how hormones elicit a biological response

Tropic Hormones

• Tropic hormones are anterior pituitary hormones that affect the secretion of hormones from other endocrine glands
• Examples of tropic hormones include TSH, ACTH, and FSH

Releasing Hormones

• Releasing hormones are produced by the hypothalamus to control the release of other hormones, also capable of inhibiting hormone release

• Releasing hormones traverse the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system to control the pituitary's release of tropic hormones

• Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH), Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH), Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH) are examples of hormones found in the hypothalamus

Inhibiting Pituitary Hormone Release

• Somatostatin inhibits the secretion of various hormones like GH and insulin
• Dopamine inhibits prolactin release

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal physiological environment

Redundancy in Biological Systems

• Redundancy is the presence of multiple elements capable of performing the same function, ensuring system robustness

Homeostasis Defined

• Homeostasis maintains stable internal conditions through feedback mechanisms that regulate variables like temperature and pH

Allostasis Defined

• Allostasis achieves stability through adaptive change, enabling the body to adapt to stressors through physiological and behavioral adjustments, sometimes involving cortisol release

Allostatic Load Explained

• Allostatic load refers to the cumulative effect of chronic stress and repeated allostatic processes, potentially leading to negative health outcomes

Endocrine Glands

• Endocrine glands produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream, acting on distant targets

Hypothalamus Function

• Hormone secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus
• Oxytocin & Vasopressin are produced and released to the posterior pituitary via neurons

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) Key Facts

• Is a master gland
• Weight: 1 gram
• Location: Below the hypothalamus, connected via the pituitary stalk (infundibulum)
• Contains axons to the posterior pituitary and blood vessels to the anterior pituitary
• Produces tropic hormones affecting endocrine glands

Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) Hormones

• GH stimulates growth
• TSH stimulates the thyroid
• ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands
• FSH stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and seminiferous tubules in testes

Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) Hormones

• Oxytocin is involved in feelings of love and childbirth, stimulating uterine contraction and milk release
• Arginine vasopressin (APV, vasopressin, ADH) stimulates water reabsorption by kidneys and blood vessel construction

Pineal Gland

• Receives information on external light levels
• Melatonin (hormone produced) regulates seasonal changes and puberty
• Location: atop the brainstem

Thyroid Gland

• Location: neck
• Thyroxine (T-4) and Triiodothyronine (T-3) are thyroid hormones that stimulate oxidative metabolism
  • Amines but behave like steroids, so bind specialized receptors inside cells, then bind to DNA, and then regulate the gene expression.
• Calcitonin prevents excessive rise in blood calcium and deposits calcium into bones

Adrenal Glands

• Location: atop the kidney

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

• Glucocorticoids (corticosterone, cortisol, hydrocortisone) inhibit amino acid incorporation into protein in muscle

• Stimulate glycogen formation/storage and maintain normal blood sugar

• Mineralocorticoids regulate sodium and potassium metabolism, affecting blood pressure. Example hormones: aldosterone, deoxycorticosterone

• Sex hormones such as androstenedione, regulate facial and body hair

Adrenal Medulla Hormones

• Catecholamines: epinephrine and norepinephrine prepare the body for fight-or-flight responses

Pancreas Hormones; Effects

• Insulin enables cells to take in glucose
• Glucagon stimulates conversion of glycogen into glucose

Thymus

• Builds the immune system in childhood

Gonads: Ovaries; Principal Hormones

• Estrogens (estradiol, estrone) stimulate development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics and behavior
• Progestins (progesterone) stimulate development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics and behavior and maintain pregnancy

Gonads: Testes; Principal Hormones

• Androgens (testosterone, dihydrotestosterone) stimulate development and maintenance of male primary and secondary sexual characteristics and behavior

Endocrine Feedback System

• Helps control balance of hormones in the bloodstream

Endocrine Disorders: Cushing's Syndrome

• Excess cortisol production, often caused by adrenal tumors or prolonged steroid use
• Symptoms include weight gain, central obesity, thinning of the skin, muscle weakness, and hypertension

Endocrine Disorders: Diabetes Mellitus

• Type 1: Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas
• Type 2: Insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion
• Symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and unexplained weight loss

Neuroendocrine System

• Is a blending of neuron and endocrine functions in one cell
• Hypothalamic neuroendocrine cells (synthesize releasing hormones) are subject to circulating messages like tropic hormones, blood sugar, blood-borne products of the immune system, and also synaptic inputs (excitatory or inhibitory) from the brain

Types of Chemical Communication

• Endocrine: Hormone release into bloodstream affects distant targets

• Synaptic: Neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft affects postsynaptic membrane, and is highly localized

• Autocrine: Cell releases a chemical that affects its own activity, such as a neuron autoreceptor

• Paracrine: Released chemical signal diffuses to nearby target cells; strongest impact on nearest cells

• Pheromone: Chemicals communicate with the same species

• Allomone: Chemical signals affect individuals of another species

Neuropathology: Neurodegenerative Illnesses

• Neurodegenerative illnesses are progressive losses of neurons structure and function, also atrophy

• Dementia: Alzheimer's affects the temporal lobe/hippocampus, and parietal lobe/cholinergic system

• Movement disorder: Parkinson's affects the basal ganglia (substantia nigra)/dopaminergic system

• Autoimmune system: Multiple Sclerosis

• Acquired brain injury: Brain injury that occurs after birth that isn't hereditary and is degenerative

• Neurovascular disease: Stroke (the vascular system)

Neuropathology: Brain Tumors

• Brain injury as a result of traumatic brain injury
• Injury: Traumatic brain injury has location of the injury (specify)
• Brain tumors are abnormal growths that can be benign or malignant
• Primary brain tumor: Originates within the brain in brain tissue
• Secondary brain tumor: Originates elsewhere in the body -Dementia: the result of erratic failure of cognitive ability that affects memory and orientation

Alzheimer's Disease

• Common neurodegenerative disease, with a decline in brain mass of 5% per decade after 40

• Memory impairments correlate with hippocampal shrinkage and decline in cerebral metabolism

• Cause: Basal forebrain neurons, responding to neurotoxicity, cease producing Acetylcholine Senile plaques are also known as amyloid plaques Are small areas of the brain with abnormal chemical patterns and correlate with senile dementia Appear in the hippocampus and limbic system sites

• Β-amyloid proteins: accumulates in senile plaques in Alzheimer's

• Formed by Β-secretase and presenilin

• ApoE can break down β-amyloid and can be tested in the blood

• Tau Proteins: are associated with neurofibrillary tangles in the Alzheimer's and is an intracellular abnormal whorl of neurofilaments

Alzheimer's: Early Signs

• Early signs are difficulty remembering recent events, conversations, progressive deterioration in cognitive functions, and disorientation/confusion

Alzheimer's Treatment

• Cholinesterase inhibitors can slow the progression of cognitive symptoms, extensive inhibition boosts acetylcholine, and strengths stimulation of postsynaptic cholinergic receptors
• Donepezil boosts cholinergic signaling and slows progression but antibodies that bind β-amyloid help delay symptoms by slowing plaque development.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

• Autoimmune disease where the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissues

• Is a demyelinating disease with brain changes include scar tissue and lesions on the brain and spinal cord, visible on MRI scans.

• Symptoms: fatigue, weakness, numbness or tingling, vision problems, difficulties with balance and coordination, and cognitive changes

Huntington’s Disease

• Results from Progressive destruction takes place in basal ganglia the caudate nucleus and putamen and possible Impairment of the cerebral cortex with excessive movement and cognitive impairments.

Parkinson’s Disease

• D is "degenerating dopamine containing cells" then lack of dopamine in substantia nigra means "difficulty in muscle movement."

• Means death of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons that produces basal ganglia impairment

• Brain Changes on Parkinson's: Includes, lack of dopamine due to cell death of substantia nigra neurons Causes postural de-stabilization and slowed movements on the system, and decreased coordination and motor skills Is expressed through loss of dopaminergic neurons through a decline of pigment loss in the Substantia Nigra

• Includes 3 motor symptoms: Rigid muscles, tremors in the resting position, and slow movement patterns Also includes such other changes and difficulties as: fatigue and monotony

• Treatment includes; experimental replacement with neuronal fetal stem replacement, use of L-Dopa synth dopamine creation, and electrical stimulation

• Acquired brain injury is neurovascular stroke that can trigger restricted restriction of blood flow

Stroke Occurrences

• Ischemic strokes occurs because an isolator blocks key blokerer arteries. then the

• Blockage restricts blood from reaching key regions in the brain

• Hemorrhaging stroke where the artery or part of the nervous system artery is rupture

• Symptoms on Strokes are dependent with Impairment affecting the side that's directly opposite that of impact. can also include weakness in speech with other sensation

Traumatic Brain Injury

• External force to the brain is the prime causes - types including a the close or penetrating brain legions that damage the dura mater
• It stems from brain movement inside the skull that causes neuron damage, and can be reduced or managed through attention to each aspect of the process/progress
• Recovery and reduction to base point is an active and ongoing process

Damage from Motor Dysfunction

• Plegia Paralysis/Weakness occurs in part of the body
• This may be due to neural motor control being affected
• Encephalopathy causes prion deterioration
• Other complications stem from improper protein foldins that disrupt the equivalent functioning of normal CDJ processes

Brain Tumors

• Abnormal cell growth that can result in cancerous states
• Two types primary starts in glial membrane in the brain while secondary is with external factors

Motor Control

• Is expressed through basic spinal cord movements done during reflex and action
• In that actions such as Motorplan all help give directives for different movements to be followed

Control Systems - Open vs Closed

• Closed loop: has controller and error signals
• The ballistic movement is one key motor pattern and area
• An entire system with control exists for a reason, is there for us to maintain and use correctly

Primary Motor Control

• Needs skeletal and muscular coordination to allow brain stem to carry out spinal cord movements
• Basal ganglia helps with all movements and activities that are in need, as well as cerebellum activities

Composition and Contraction in Muscles

• Is only achieved by Motor Neurons and Tendons and the movement all are supposed to give
• Such types include Myosin and Actin

All help ensure Normal function, for example Dystrophin

• Works in tandem with muscles to ensure they interact in appropriate way

Proprioception Activities and Sensations

• They are responsible for the Body sense, a sixth sense responsible for monitoring and managing our awareness at all times
• The Golgi tendon performs this by contracting movement when the muscle is in activity
• Muscle spindles help us monitor each part of the body as well, and is known for working all throughout these operations

Spinal Cord and Injury

• The spinal Reflex arc is the central zone while generating activity to help facilitate natural states
• Many activities can damage this type of natural coordination
• Injury can be re-mediated through the introduction of cells like a stem cells

Motor Control: Medulla Oblongata

• Some Muscles are Controlled directly by Brain
• Brainstem & Cranial Motor Nuclei innervate muscles to both Head and Neck

The Pyramidal System

• Includes neurons in the cerebral cortex sending axons to form the pyramidal tract
• The neurons start in primary motor cortex and end extending throughout the medulla
• The pathways is structured for easy transverse movements of the nerves

Extrapyramidal Systems

• Has a tract that stems in the Brain stem as well as that midbrain (with Red Neuron)

Basal Ganglia Functions and Purpose

• Receives info from cerebral Cortex and sends those directions/output for actions of the cortex via the thalamu
• Functions for this include: Parkinson, Huntington and other like-diseases

Cerebellum Processes

• Affect programs; while improving coordination in brain
• Is impacted with SMA in relation to smooth operations
• Contains all the neurons for operation

Cortex Activities:

• Can be both that of the primary and non - motor cortex areas, each serving different tasks to maintain the function
• Also include supplementary areas to ensure that movement is active in an on - responsive state to cues

Mirror Neurons

• Serve in function in motor cortex but can be related to any neuron or region found throughout the human species
• Helps individuals empathize better for each interaction (contributes to increased social interactions)

Cortex Functionality

• Plays key roles in the cerebellum while having distinct differences, depending with various lesion activity in certain areas Those areas includes: the spinocerebellum, the cerebreocerebellum, and the vestibulocerebellum, affecting ataxia and abnormalities

Biological Rhythms Defined

• Includes a cycle of 20% of genes being expressed on a circadian cycle depending on all areas
• Diurnal relates to light patterns while nocturnal means darkness dictates it
• Zeitgeber is any give in german, while infradian relates to cycles that are longer than a menstrual period. on annual cycles

The Main Components

• Can be tied directly and specifically through the hypothalamus and how key info is received by the Chiasm and Ganglion

Sleep Patterns: Waking Hours

• Characterized by Beta and Hyperactivity while being in a constant state of awareness through alertness in all zones

• Sleep helps Conserve needed reserves, helping the glymphatic system remove B proteins related with higher brain functioning Also increases capacity for memory and aids in new learning tasks during consolidation

Neural Sleep Systems

• Forebrain can help with SWS display

• Reticular formation aids the Brainstem, by activating and awakening NREM

• The PONS in this can trigger Rhenm Sleep patterns, and if the Pons are sustained than that means there will sustain Sleep states with Paraphernalia

• Hypothalamic activity affects processes through regulation in other regions

• Is is also a determinant of Narcolepsy, characterized by a disorder where hypercretin production is minimal

The Four Stages in Sleep

• Alpha rhythms is from 8 to 12 Hz, taking turns between stage one and the other cycles
• It takes 90 minutes or shorter until we reach a state of REM, and cycles in this state can occur 4-5 times each night

Characteristics and the Stages of Each

• Includes: Alpha with increased heart rate with Vertex spike displays
• Sleep Spindles is key the 2 stage component for muscle states
• Whereas the third phase involves wide amplitudes with slow waves

REM Sleep Processes and States

• Comes about by ways set to the EEG, for increased sensation and states of mind all around.
• Is characterized by Rapid movement and little tensions, with possible vivid experiences. helps maintain the Rhenm state

Non-Rhenm

• Relates to the general sense of dreaming during this phase with the possibility of night terrors. Involves Sleep Terrors, sleepwalking, etc
• Sleep then allows full cognitive healing for the user, by healing and restoring the key functions

Sleep Deprivation

• Is highly problematic and often leads to: Hallucinations, diminished attention, a chance of being fatal due to key risks

Emotional Activity Types

• Involve the Cognitive subjective and Physiological all aligned as response mechanism

Class Emotion Theories

• James lange helps trigger bodily changes
• Cannon Bard states all emotions are from appropriate Stimuli
• While Schachter states we help attribute Cognitivr to emotions for correct arousal

Muscles Expressions

• Help display Basic states of functions, such as joy, anger, or all of Poul Erkmans

Limbic and Emotional Integration Activity

• AMAGALA is located with 2 and 3 responses to Central - Terminalis stimuli, to allow activation

Aggression and its Link to Sex

• Is tied to the ability to find dominance and food, is also highly connected to androgen releases. All tied to maintaining and relating to the serotorn level

HPA axis

• Also has relationship to chronic state management - good - toxic

• Stress and allostasis -

• Allostasis is linked to stress and can help individuals respond to this and other related aspects better, to improve survival and functioning

HPA Axis Components

• The Hypothalamus stimulates the anterior in the pituitary the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol to relieve the patient who is being treated Other functions to this includes: being able to be Groomed at a lot that can handle Stress effectively

Immune Interactions

• Suppression and stress on the system does cause changes, for a vast degradation
• Some of the areas and function changes includes: bipolar disorder and the monoamine activities

Psychopathology

• Has connections with learning, due to it being highly unpleasant

• One of these connections being the relation to a drop in dopamine which is connected to function

• Schizophrenia relates to withdrawl and lack of emotions due to the genetic disorders and structural abnormality from 1% of human

• Brain Change Cause Is that caused in relation to the various structures and genetic versions of genes

Such as the ventricular activities and limbic functions, with the abnormal levels metabolic activities

Key Functions in Schizophrenia

• Involve the dopamine activity, the excessive release and its relative activity That can range and be involved with all areas of action that we use Due to what takes place and is in each body area

• Problems arise from the lack of support that happens from that action, in both blood and genetic activity

The Senses

Sensory Processing

• Requires stimulus to connect through neural activity for sensory process

The adequate for the stimulus and receptor

• Have a wide hierarchy that has stations where each individual must work for full functionality

Primary and Non-Primary Functions

• Modalities that are highly sensory, or in the thalamus, for different reasons With their functions relating to the non primary functions

The Outer Body Functions

• Works, the skin is made of 3 layers
• And are connected through dermatome activities and other related areas

The System

• Functions from the bottom levels while then having their work sent to the thalamus, where sensations for the function may be processed
• Key to know that function of the receptor in the dermis for these activities and their signals for it to be a success

Pain Perception- three aspects- Emotional impact- e.g. a fear response Degree of awareness- intensity of pain may vary Interpretation of the pain- (e.g. throbbing, crushing etc.) -TRPM3 triggers high temperatures

• ADelta transmits acute pain
• TRPV1 responds to moderate temperatures

Analgesic - pain relied by stressors

• Opitates trigger pain reduction
• Nocebo affect in reverse triggers pain and stress levels There are endogenous enkephalins that help assist with regulation in these areas

HPA axis and all of them working together across All function aspects for the human All functions that we maintain

Other Key areas and aspects and relation to different organs

• Ear : the medium is responsible for the vibrations that help in the key functioning

Balance Taste

• With balance requiring taste, the gustatory allows great pattern coding due to this
• Vision, the way to see through neural activity and function through