Podcast
Questions and Answers
What molecule does adenylate cyclase convert ATP into?
What molecule does adenylate cyclase convert ATP into?
- Phosphodiesterase
- G Protein
- Cyclic AMP (correct)
- AMP
What role does cyclic AMP typically play in cells?
What role does cyclic AMP typically play in cells?
- Enzyme
- First messenger
- Second messenger (correct)
- Receptor
What is the general function of kinases activated by cyclic AMP?
What is the general function of kinases activated by cyclic AMP?
- Synthesizing proteins
- Degrading cAMP
- Hydrolyzing proteins
- Phosphorylating proteins (correct)
What enzyme converts cAMP to AMP?
What enzyme converts cAMP to AMP?
A G protein is an enzyme complex coupled to what structure?
A G protein is an enzyme complex coupled to what structure?
What is a 'first messenger'?
What is a 'first messenger'?
What is the effect of activated G proteins on cAMP levels?
What is the effect of activated G proteins on cAMP levels?
Which hormone is synthesized by pinealocytes in the pineal gland?
Which hormone is synthesized by pinealocytes in the pineal gland?
What percentage of the adrenal medulla's secretion is typically epinephrine?
What percentage of the adrenal medulla's secretion is typically epinephrine?
Which hormone directly affects the adrenal cortex?
Which hormone directly affects the adrenal cortex?
What is one of the effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine on skeletal muscles?
What is one of the effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine on skeletal muscles?
Which of the following hormones is released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
Which of the following hormones is released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
What is the primary function of melatonin?
What is the primary function of melatonin?
Which hormone primarily targets the kidneys?
Which hormone primarily targets the kidneys?
What is the primary effect of mineralocorticoids on the kidneys?
What is the primary effect of mineralocorticoids on the kidneys?
What is the main function of thyroid follicles?
What is the main function of thyroid follicles?
In which organ does epinephrine stimulate β1 receptors to increase the speed and strength of cardiac muscle contraction?
In which organ does epinephrine stimulate β1 receptors to increase the speed and strength of cardiac muscle contraction?
What stimulates the release of glucocorticoids?
What stimulates the release of glucocorticoids?
Which hormone affects melanocytes?
Which hormone affects melanocytes?
What connects the two lobes of the thyroid gland?
What connects the two lobes of the thyroid gland?
Which of the following is an effect of glucocorticoids?
Which of the following is an effect of glucocorticoids?
From which zone of the adrenal cortex are androgens secreted?
From which zone of the adrenal cortex are androgens secreted?
Which of the following is a function of oxytocin in females?
Which of the following is a function of oxytocin in females?
Which of these hormones uses the hypophyseal portal system to reach the anterior pituitary?
Which of these hormones uses the hypophyseal portal system to reach the anterior pituitary?
What is the primary effect of aldosterone?
What is the primary effect of aldosterone?
Which of the following hormones is produced by the testes?
Which of the following hormones is produced by the testes?
Which of the following inhibits the release of aldosterone?
Which of the following inhibits the release of aldosterone?
What do C cells (parafollicular cells) of the thyroid gland do?
What do C cells (parafollicular cells) of the thyroid gland do?
What effect do glucocorticoids have on blood glucose levels?
What effect do glucocorticoids have on blood glucose levels?
Which hormone stimulates the development of pubic hair before puberty?
Which hormone stimulates the development of pubic hair before puberty?
Which hormone primarily affects the liver?
Which hormone primarily affects the liver?
What is the function of the adrenal capsule?
What is the function of the adrenal capsule?
What is the median eminence?
What is the median eminence?
What is the role of fenestrated capillaries in the median eminence?
What is the role of fenestrated capillaries in the median eminence?
What type of blood vessels link two capillary networks?
What type of blood vessels link two capillary networks?
What is the hypophyseal portal system?
What is the hypophyseal portal system?
What is the primary function of the hypophyseal portal system?
What is the primary function of the hypophyseal portal system?
Which artery delivers blood to the capillary network in the upper infundibulum?
Which artery delivers blood to the capillary network in the upper infundibulum?
Where does the inferior hypophyseal artery deliver blood?
Where does the inferior hypophyseal artery deliver blood?
What type of neurons are located in the supra-optic and paraventricular nuclei?
What type of neurons are located in the supra-optic and paraventricular nuclei?
Which structure is located near the mammillary body, as depicted in the diagram?
Which structure is located near the mammillary body, as depicted in the diagram?
What is a primary mechanism by which the endocrine and nervous systems maintain regulation?
What is a primary mechanism by which the endocrine and nervous systems maintain regulation?
Into what do endocrine cells release their secretions?
Into what do endocrine cells release their secretions?
What hormone is produced by the pineal gland?
What hormone is produced by the pineal gland?
Which gland is located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland?
Which gland is located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland?
What is released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
What is released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
What do the endocrine and nervous systems rely on?
What do the endocrine and nervous systems rely on?
What is the name given to secretions from endocrine cells and tissues?
What is the name given to secretions from endocrine cells and tissues?
What percentage of T4 in the bloodstream is bound by thyroid-binding globulins (TBGs)?
What percentage of T4 in the bloodstream is bound by thyroid-binding globulins (TBGs)?
What stimulates the hypothalamus to release TRH?
What stimulates the hypothalamus to release TRH?
What is the function of Transthyretin and albumin?
What is the function of Transthyretin and albumin?
Which gland releases TSH?
Which gland releases TSH?
What percentage of T3 remains unbound and free to diffuse into tissues?
What percentage of T3 remains unbound and free to diffuse into tissues?
What type of molecule is cyclic AMP?
What type of molecule is cyclic AMP?
What is the typical effect of cyclic AMP on kinases?
What is the typical effect of cyclic AMP on kinases?
What is the function of phosphodiesterase (PDE)?
What is the function of phosphodiesterase (PDE)?
To what structure is a G protein coupled?
To what structure is a G protein coupled?
What kind of molecule commonly acts as a 'first messenger'?
What kind of molecule commonly acts as a 'first messenger'?
Activated G proteins often affect the concentration of which molecule?
Activated G proteins often affect the concentration of which molecule?
What process do kinases activated by cyclic AMP generally perform?
What process do kinases activated by cyclic AMP generally perform?
What enzyme produces cyclic AMP (cAMP)?
What enzyme produces cyclic AMP (cAMP)?
What happens to cAMP levels when phosphodiesterase is active?
What happens to cAMP levels when phosphodiesterase is active?
What is the usual duration of an increase in cAMP levels?
What is the usual duration of an increase in cAMP levels?
From what substance are steroid hormones derived?
From what substance are steroid hormones derived?
Which of the following is a steroid hormone produced by the ovaries?
Which of the following is a steroid hormone produced by the ovaries?
Where are corticosteroids produced?
Where are corticosteroids produced?
Which of the following is true regarding free hormones in the bloodstream?
Which of the following is true regarding free hormones in the bloodstream?
How are free hormones typically inactivated?
How are free hormones typically inactivated?
What is a key characteristic of thyroid and steroid hormones regarding their transport in the bloodstream?
What is a key characteristic of thyroid and steroid hormones regarding their transport in the bloodstream?
What is one way that the binding of a hormone to a receptor can affect a cell?
What is one way that the binding of a hormone to a receptor can affect a cell?
What determines a cell's hormonal sensitivity?
What determines a cell's hormonal sensitivity?
What is a hormone receptor?
What is a hormone receptor?
What is the function of phospholipase C (PLC) when activated by a G protein?
What is the function of phospholipase C (PLC) when activated by a G protein?
What does inositol triphosphate (IP3) trigger in the cytoplasm?
What does inositol triphosphate (IP3) trigger in the cytoplasm?
What is the direct effect of Ca2+ entering the cell through calcium ion channels?
What is the direct effect of Ca2+ entering the cell through calcium ion channels?
Which of the following is considered a 'first messenger'?
Which of the following is considered a 'first messenger'?
What is the role of a G protein in cell signaling?
What is the role of a G protein in cell signaling?
Which of the following hormones is an example of a 'first messenger'?
Which of the following hormones is an example of a 'first messenger'?
What class of molecule is DAG (diacylglycerol)?
What class of molecule is DAG (diacylglycerol)?
Which hormone uses G proteins and calcium ions as part of its signaling mechanism?
Which hormone uses G proteins and calcium ions as part of its signaling mechanism?
What hormone is an example of one that utilizes a membrane receptor that activates a G protein?
What hormone is an example of one that utilizes a membrane receptor that activates a G protein?
Which of the following first messengers work with G proteins?
Which of the following first messengers work with G proteins?
Approximately how many different hormones are produced by endocrine cells and tissues?
Approximately how many different hormones are produced by endocrine cells and tissues?
Which type of intercellular communication involves the exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent cells across gap junctions?
Which type of intercellular communication involves the exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent cells across gap junctions?
What type of communication involves chemical signals transferring information within a single tissue?
What type of communication involves chemical signals transferring information within a single tissue?
Which of the following describes autocrine communication?
Which of the following describes autocrine communication?
In what manner are hormones transported in endocrine communication?
In what manner are hormones transported in endocrine communication?
Where do hormones bind in the mechanism described?
Where do hormones bind in the mechanism described?
What is the direct result of the hormone-receptor complex binding to DNA?
What is the direct result of the hormone-receptor complex binding to DNA?
What is the effect of hormone binding to intracellular receptors?
What is the effect of hormone binding to intracellular receptors?
What cellular process immediately follows gene activation in this mechanism?
What cellular process immediately follows gene activation in this mechanism?
What is the final step in this intracellular hormone binding mechanism?
What is the final step in this intracellular hormone binding mechanism?
What happens to the number of hormone receptors during down-regulation?
What happens to the number of hormone receptors during down-regulation?
What is the primary characteristic of steroid hormones that allows them to cross the plasma membrane?
What is the primary characteristic of steroid hormones that allows them to cross the plasma membrane?
What is the role of a 'first messenger' in hormone action?
What is the role of a 'first messenger' in hormone action?
What is the process of amplification in hormone signaling?
What is the process of amplification in hormone signaling?
What molecule does a G protein bind to?
What molecule does a G protein bind to?
What can steroid hormones alter in the nucleus?
What can steroid hormones alter in the nucleus?
What is the effect of thyroid hormones on ATP production?
What is the effect of thyroid hormones on ATP production?
Where do steroid hormones typically bind to receptors?
Where do steroid hormones typically bind to receptors?
Which of the following is an example of a first messenger?
Which of the following is an example of a first messenger?
What is the direct result of activated G proteins?
What is the direct result of activated G proteins?
Flashcards
Adenylate Cyclase
Adenylate Cyclase
An enzyme that converts ATP (adenosine triphosphate) into cyclic AMP (cAMP).
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Cyclic AMP (cAMP) acts as a messenger within cells to relay signals received from outside the cell.
Kinases
Kinases
Enzymes that add phosphate groups to proteins, often activated by cAMP.
cAMP duration
cAMP duration
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Phosphodiesterase (PDE)
Phosphodiesterase (PDE)
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First Messenger
First Messenger
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G Protein
G Protein
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Median Eminence
Median Eminence
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Fenestrated Capillaries
Fenestrated Capillaries
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Portal Vessels
Portal Vessels
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Portal System
Portal System
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Hypophyseal Portal System
Hypophyseal Portal System
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Superior Hypophyseal Artery
Superior Hypophyseal Artery
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Portal Vessels
Portal Vessels
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Inferior Hypophyseal Artery
Inferior Hypophyseal Artery
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Neurosecretory Neurons
Neurosecretory Neurons
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Epinephrine (E) Effects
Epinephrine (E) Effects
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Epinephrine (E)
Epinephrine (E)
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Epinephrine/Norepinephrine in Muscles
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine in Muscles
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Pineal Gland
Pineal Gland
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Melatonin Functions
Melatonin Functions
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Hypothalamus: Direct Control
Hypothalamus: Direct Control
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Hypothalamus: Indirect Control
Hypothalamus: Indirect Control
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Hypothalamus: Direct Release
Hypothalamus: Direct Release
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ACTH Function
ACTH Function
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TSH Function
TSH Function
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GH Function
GH Function
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Thyroid Gland Location
Thyroid Gland Location
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Thyroid Follicles
Thyroid Follicles
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Thyroid Follicle Cells
Thyroid Follicle Cells
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C (Clear) Cells Function
C (Clear) Cells Function
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Mineralocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
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Aldosterone regulation
Aldosterone regulation
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Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
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Examples of Glucocorticoids
Examples of Glucocorticoids
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Glucocorticoids regulation
Glucocorticoids regulation
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Where are Glucocorticoids produced?
Where are Glucocorticoids produced?
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Adrenal Androgens
Adrenal Androgens
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Regulation of Androgens
Regulation of Androgens
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Where are Mineralocorticoids Produced?
Where are Mineralocorticoids Produced?
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location of Androgen creation
location of Androgen creation
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Hormones
Hormones
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Endocrine System
Endocrine System
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Endocrine Cells
Endocrine Cells
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Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
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Parathyroid Glands
Parathyroid Glands
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Anterior Pituitary Horm.
Anterior Pituitary Horm.
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Steroid Hormones
Steroid Hormones
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Androgens
Androgens
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Estrogens and Progesterone
Estrogens and Progesterone
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Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids
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Calcitriol
Calcitriol
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Transport Proteins
Transport Proteins
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Hormone Circulation
Hormone Circulation
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Hormone Reserves
Hormone Reserves
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Hormone Action
Hormone Action
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Thyroid-Binding proteins
Thyroid-Binding proteins
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Thyroid Hormone Transport
Thyroid Hormone Transport
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Thyroid Hormone Production
Thyroid Hormone Production
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Free Thyroid Hormones
Free Thyroid Hormones
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Transthyretin and Albumin
Transthyretin and Albumin
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Second Messenger
Second Messenger
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G protein effects
G protein effects
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Protein receptor activation
Protein receptor activation
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Calcitonin
Calcitonin
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Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
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Peptide Hormones
Peptide Hormones
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Phospholipase C (PLC)
Phospholipase C (PLC)
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DAG
DAG
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IP3
IP3
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Protein Kinase C (PKC)
Protein Kinase C (PKC)
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Calmodulin
Calmodulin
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Direct Communication
Direct Communication
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Paracrine Communication
Paracrine Communication
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Autocrine Communication
Autocrine Communication
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Endocrine Communication
Endocrine Communication
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Hormones and intracellular receptors
Hormones and intracellular receptors
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Steroid hormone action
Steroid hormone action
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Thyroid Hormone Effects
Thyroid Hormone Effects
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First Messengers (Examples)
First Messengers (Examples)
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Down-regulation
Down-regulation
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Up-regulation
Up-regulation
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Non-lipid-soluble hormones
Non-lipid-soluble hormones
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Lipid-soluble hormones
Lipid-soluble hormones
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Amplification
Amplification
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Hormone Diffusion
Hormone Diffusion
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Intracellular Hormone Binding
Intracellular Hormone Binding
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Hormone-Receptor Complex Binding
Hormone-Receptor Complex Binding
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Gene Activation
Gene Activation
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Translation and Protein Synthesis
Translation and Protein Synthesis
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Study Notes
Intercellular Communication
- Intercellular communication mechanisms involve direct communication, paracrine communication, autocrine communication, endocrine communication, and synaptic communication.
- Direct communication involves the exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent cells via gap junctions.
- It occurs between two cells of the same type, and is highly specialized and relatively rare.
- Paracrine communication involves the transfer of information from cell to cell within a single tissue via chemical signals.
- Autocrine communication involves messages that affect the same cells that secrete them.
- The chemicals Involved are autocrines
- Example Prostaglandins are secreted by smooth muscle and cause cells to contract
- Endocrine communication involves the release of chemicals (hormones) by endocrine cells that are transported in the bloodstream.
- This alters the metabolic activities of many organs
- Synaptic communication involves neurons releasing neurotransmitters at a synapse -This leads to action potentials propagated along axons, to specific destinations at high speed -It Is ideal for crisis management
Target Cells
- Target cells have receptors to bind and "read" hormonal messages.
Hormones
- Hormones change the types, quantities, or activities of enzymes and structural proteins in target cells.
- They can alter metabolic activities of multiple tissues and organs at the same time
- Affect long-term processes like growth and development.
Endocrine and Nervous Systems
- Both endocrine and nervous systems rely on the release of chemicals that bind to specific receptors on target cells.
- They share numerous chemical messengers like norepinephrine and epinephrine.
- Are regulated mainly by negative feedback.
- Function to preserve homeostasis by coordinating and regulating activities
Endocrine System Components
- Includes all endocrine cells and tissues that produce hormones or paracrines.
- Endocrine cells release secretions into extracellular fluid, unlike exocrine cells.
- Endocrine organs are scattered throughout the body.
Classes of Hormones
- There are three classes of hormones: Amino acid derivatives, Peptide hormones and Lipid derivatives.
Amino Acid Derivatives (Biogenic Amines)
- These are small molecules structurally related to amino acids.
- Derivatives of tyrosine include thyroid hormones and catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine).
- Derivatives of tryptophan include serotonin and melatonin.
Peptide Hormones
- Are chains of amino acids.
- Most are synthesized as prohormones, inactive molecules that are converted to active hormones before or after they are secreted.
- Glycoproteins which, are proteins more than 200 amino acids long that have carbohydrate side chains (e.g., TSH, LH, FSH).
- Short of polypeptides/small proteins
Peptide chains
- Short-chain polypeptides: ADH and OXT are each nine amino acids long.
- Small proteins:
- Insulin (51 amino acids).
- Growth hormone (191 amino acids).
- Prolactin (198 amino acids).
- Includes all hormones secreted by hypothalamus, heart, thymus, digestive tract, pancreas, posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, etc.
Lipid Derivatives
- Eicosanoids is derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid.
- These, are paracrines that coordinate cellular activities and affect enzymatic processes like blood clotting.
- Some eicosanoids such as leukotrienes have secondary roles as hormones.
Prostaglandins coordinate local cellular activities
- Converted to thromboxanes and prostacyclins in some tissues.
- Steroid hormones
Steroid Hormones
- Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol.
- Includes androgens are located in testes from males.
- Estrogens and progesterone from ovaries in females.
- Corticosteroids from adrenal cortex.
- Calcitriol are located in kidneys.
- Bound to specific transport proteins in plasma, steroid hormones remain in circulation longer than peptide hormones
Transport and Inactivation
- Hormones may circulate freely or travel bound to special carrier proteins.
- Free hormones remain functional for less than an hour; are inactivated when they:
- Diffuse out of bloodstream and bind to receptors on target cells
- Are absorbed and broken down by liver or kidneys, or are broken down by enzymes in blood or interstitial fluids.
Thyroid and Steroid Hormones
- Thyroid and steroid hormones remain functional much longer.
- More than 99% become attached to special transport proteins in blood
- Equilibrium state exists between free and bound forms
- Bloodstream contains a substantial reserve of bound hormones.
Hormone Action Mechanisms
- Binding of a hormone may alter genetic activity, alter rate of protein synthesis, and change membrane permeability
Hormone Receptor
- A protein molecule to which a particular molecule binds strongly.
- Different tissues have different combinations of receptors
- Presence/absence of a specific receptor determines hormonal sensitivity of a cell
Down-regulation
- With down-regulation, the Presence of a hormone triggers a decrease in hormone receptors number.
- When levels of a particular hormone are high, cells become less sensitive to it
Up-Regulation
- With up-regulation, the absence of a hormone triggers an increase in the number of hormone receptors.
- When the levels of a particular hormone are low, cells become more sensitive to it..
Two-Hormone Classes,
- With regards to catecholamines, it is Peptide hormones are not lipid soluble
- Unable to penetrate plama membrane, they bind to receptor proteinsouter surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors)
- And steroid and thyroid hormones are lipid soluble.
- Those Diffuse across plasma membraneand bind to receptors inside cell (intracellular receptors)
Extracellular Receptors.
- First messenger:
- Hormone that binds to extracellular receptor and promotes second messenger release in cell
- Second messenger:
- Molecule that intermediary, which appears due to hormone-receptor interaction
- May act as enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor
- Results in change in rates of metabolic reactions e.g., cAMP, cGMP, Ca2+
Amplification
- in the process, When a small number of hormone molecules binds toextracellular receptors,Thousands of second messengers may appear
- which magnifies effect of hormone on target cell
G Protein
- The enzyme complex Coupled to membrane receptor
- Protein binds GTP
- To link with first messenger and second messenger
G Proteins and cAMP
- Steps involved in increasing cAMP level, accelerating the cell metabolic activityActivated G protein activates adenylate cyclase
- Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP. This then functions as a second messenger. Generaly cyclic AMP activates knases that phosphorylate proteins increase
- With cAMP level usually short lived Phosphodiesterase (PDE) converts cAMP to AMP
G Proteins and Calcium Ions
G protein activates phospholipase C (PLC) • Triggers receptor cascade beginning with production of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) from phospholipids • IP3 diffuses into cytoplasm and triggers release of Ca2+ from intracellular reserves • Calcium ion channels open due to activation of protein kinase C (PKC), and Ca2+ enters cell • Ca2+ binds to calmodulin, activating enzymes
Steroid Hormones
- Steroid hormones can Alter rate of DNA transcription in nucleus, causing alterations in synthesis of enzymes/structural proteins.
- It Directly affects activity and structure of target cell.
- Thyroid hromones, binds to receptors - which activates genes and changes transcription rate within nucleus and on mitochondria, increasing rates of ATP production
Hormone Secretion
- Hormone secretion is mainly controlled by negative feedback loops.
- A stimulus triggers hormone production, which reduces the stimulus' intensity.
- Hormone secretion can be prompted by:
- Humoral stimuli (changes in extracellular fluid composition).
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Description
Questions cover adenylate cyclase, cyclic AMP, kinases, G proteins, and first messengers. Explore hormones like epinephrine, norepinephrine, melatonin, and mineralocorticoids. Learn about their roles in cell signaling pathways and target organs.
