History of Spain and the EU

• These are study notes on the history of Spain and its relationship with the EU.

Historical Introduction: Spanish Second Republic (1931-1936)

• The Republic immediately followed the Primo de Rivera Dictatorship.
• The Republic sought sociopolitical change, modernization and to Europeanize Spain.
• A confrontation between the right and left led to civil war.
• Problems included: land tenure, distribution of territorial power, role of church and the army, illiteracy, and the debate between monarchy and republic.
• The Constitution of 1931 established Spain as a secular democratic republic with universal suffrage, curtailing the power of the Catholic Church.

The Civil War (1936-1939)

• The Civil War was caused by the confrontation of reform and reaction in the Second Republic.
• Cleavages existed along lines of class, religion, center vs periphery, and form of government.
• The victory of the nationalists led to the establishment of a personal dictatorship.

The Franco Dictatorship

• Franco was the sole leader.
• Franco was supported by a conservative coalition made up of the military, conservatives, Catholics, and monarchists.
• The regime promoted national unity, order, and discipline, maintaining a nationalist stance until its end.
• The regime had distinct periods:
  • Fascist period (1939-1945)
  • Modernization (1945-1959)
  • Technocratic phase (1959-1975)
• El desarrollismo from 1959 onwards saw economic growth and profound social change through foreign investment, tourism, remittances of emigrants, and exports.
• Changes included industrialization, urbanization, rising education, changing class structure, secularization, increased consumption, and the breakdown of social control.
• Franco maintained power through:
  • Representing the winner of the Civil War.
  • Extermination and repression.
  • Cunning personality.
  • Peace and prosperity from the 1960s onward, providing legitimacy and stability.
• The regime lacked elaborate ideology, had no single party, and allowed limited pluralism at the city level.
• Totalitarian from 1939-1945, and then authoritarian thereafter.
• The regime ended with Franco's death in 1975.

Transition to Democracy (1975-1979)

• The New Democratic Constitution was approved by referendum in December 1978.
• Basque and Catalan Autonomy Statutes came into force in 1979.
• Transition due to domestic factors, with politics prevailing over economics, and favorable structural conditions.
• There was a gradual, short, and peaceful legal transformation, with consensus among elites and moderation of the electorate.
• Important moments included:
  • The Law for Political Reform (1976), allowing open and free elections.
  • The Moncloa Pacts (1977), which brought social peace but were only politically relevant.
• The 1978 Constitution:
  • Established Spain as a Parliamentary Monarchy.
  • Recognized the Estado de las Autonomías.
  • Ensured religious pluralism.
  • Outlined the duties of the armed forces, including ensuring the country's sovereignty and independence.

Democratic Consolidation

• Challenges included:
  • Minority and weak governments.
  • A coup attempt (coup detat) in 1981.
  • Economic crisis.
  • Terrorism.
  • Territorial reform.
• The transition was possible in the 1970s/80s due to societal changes that were less polarized.

Institutions and Actors: Parliamentary Monarchy

• The King is not sovereign; sovereignty is exercised by the people through representatives in parliament.
• The King represents and symbolizes the Spanish state and carries symbolic, moderating, and arbitrating functions.
• Functions of the King are:
  • Sanctioning and promulgating laws (moderating).
  • Issuing decrees approved by the council of ministers (moderating).
  • Serving as commander in chief of armed forces (symbolic).
  • Representing Spain in its relations with other states (symbolic).
  • Proposing a candidate to head the government (arbitrating).
• King Juan Carlos I reigned from 1975-2014, appointed as successor by Franco.
• King Felipe VI reigns from 2014-present.

Las Cortes Generales (Spanish Parliament)

• The Congress of Deputies (lower house) is supreme with regard to the election of the prime minister, oversight of government, and formulation of national policy.
  • It has 350 members elected by two constituencies using the D'hondt method of proportional representation.
  • Deputies serve 4-year terms.
• The Senate (upper house) plays a secondary role, creating an asymmetrical parliament.
  • It has 265 members: 208 elected by popular vote and 57 appointed by regional legislatures.
  • Senators serve 4-year terms.
  • Each province selects four senators, without regard to population.

The Government

• Spain has a German-style chancellor democracy with a dominant prime minister.
• The Prime minister is designated by the constitution as having a primary role in decision-making and policy implementation.
• There is a more balanced relationship between branches in recent years due to the need for governing coalitions to obtain support from other political forces.
• Nomination and confirmation of the Prime Minister (President of Government) proceeds as follows:
  • The King nominates a candidate.
  • The candidate submits a proposal.
  • Congress votes: If an overall majority is obtained, the candidate wins; otherwise, another vote is needed after 48 hours for a new majority. If there is still no majority after two months, a new election is held.
  • Congress can use a motion of censure to provide a new candidate, proposed by at least one-tenth of Congress, needing to include a new candidate.
• Prime ministers include:
  • Adolfo Suarez, UCD (1977-1981)
  • Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo, UCD (1981-1982)
  • Felipe Gonzalez, PSOE (1982-1996)
  • Jose Maria Anzar, PP (1996-2004)
  • Jose Luis Rodriguiez Zapatero, PSOE (2004-2011)
  • Mariano Rajoy, PP (2011-2018)
  • Pedro Sanchez, PSOE (2018-present): came to power as a result of a motion of censure against Rajoy.

Other Important Institutions

• The Constitutional Court:
  • Conducts independent reviews of constitutional legislation.
  • Contains 12 magistrates who serve 9-year terms.
    • Four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies.
    • Four are nominated by the Senate.
    • Two are nominated by the executive branch.
    • Two are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary.
• The General Council of the Judiciary:
  • Oversees the court system.
  • Plays a key role in the appointment and promotion of judges.
  • Has 20 members plus a president (who is also the president of the Supreme Court).
    • Ten are appointed by the Congress.
    • Ten are appointed by the Senate.
    • They serve 5-year terms.
• Other institutions include:
  • The Junta electoral central, which oversees the electoral process.
  • The Court of Accounts, which controls public accounts and audits the accountancy of political parties.
  • The Defender of the People, who investigates individuals' complaints.
  • The Consejo de Administración de radio y television

The Judiciary

• The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body.
  • It has five chambers; only the Constitutional Court can appeal its rulings.
  • Has territorial organization.

Estado de las Autonomías

• Spain has historically had different regions with distinct rights, privileges, and cultures.
• It has had a "federal-regional" structure of Spanish state since 1978.
• It consists of 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities (Ceuta and Melilla).
• Autonomous Communities are mainly responsible for the management of health care, education, and social services.
• Three regions have unique languages and cultures:
  • Catalonia
  • Basque Country
  • Galicia
• Revenue allocation follows a common regime with a system of assigned taxes.
• Problems include precarious funding and limited utility of the Senate.
• Nationalist elites demand more special treatment and call for separation.
• Spanish socialists have a federal vision of the state of autonomies, while the PP wants just one nation: Spain.

The Spanish Party System

• The PSOE and PP are the two largest parties.
• Podemos and Vox are more polarized.
• Political parties range from Podemos (left) to Vox (right):
  • Podemos → PSOE → Ciudadanos → Sumar → PP → Vox
• Parties are financed through interest groups and public funds.
  • Public funding accounts for up to 90% of total income.
  • The state reimburses national election expenses.
  • Funds are allocated according to the number of votes received and the number of deputies in the upper and lower chambers.
  • Parties also receive money through membership, private donors, etc.
• There are neo-corporatist arrangements.
• Organized interest groups include:
  • Business community
  • Trabajadores
• Four large nationwide multimedia corporations control the press, television, and radio.

Spanish Welfare State

• The welfare state has hybrid models.
  • Bismarckian (income maintenance).
  • Social-democratic (healthcare/education).
  • Liberal policies (minimum income and social inclusion programs).
• Welfare is deeply decentralized to autonomous communities in the last three decades.
• Education has undergone modernization and expansion.
  • Is compulsory and free between ages 6 and 16.
  • Generalization of schooling, with doubts about improving quality.
  • Powers are almost entirely in the hands of autonomous communities.
  • GDP expenditure on education is increasing.
• Healthcare has:
  • Universal coverage, financed through taxes
  • High life expectancy
  • Risk factors include smoking, obesity, alcohol, and air pollution.
  • There are problems with waiting times, an aging population, and limited resources at critical junctures.

Pensions

• The social security system is based on Bismarck's model of redistribution.
• Principles:
  • Allocation: social security payments of active workers finance benefits that exist at the time.
  • Benefits received are proportional to contributions paid.
  • Managed and financed by a public institution, the National Social Security Institute.
• The retirement age is 65 with at least 15 years of social security contributions.
• The amount of the pension depends on the base amount for which social security was paid.
• The retirement age is rising.

Dependency Law

• Guarantees comparable public support across autonomous communities for people who do not live independently due to illness, disability, or age.
• Long waiting times for aid.

Unemployment

• Social benefits are linked to employment.
• Temporary jobs are common.
  • 2021 reforms sought to put an end to temporary employment.
• There is a high youth unemployment rate.
• Minimum Vital Income (MVI):
  • This is a non-contributory social security benefit that is indefinite and financed through taxes.
  • The objective is to contribute to reducing currently high levels of income inequality.

Contemporary Spanish Foreign Policy

• Key aspects:
  • Democratic and Pro-Western Orientation
  • Membership of NATO and EU.
    • Spain wanted to join NATO to strengthen its territorial integrity and break the deadlock in EU negotiations.
    • Spain originally did not join NATO's military structure, wanting to reduce the US military presence in Spain.
    • Spain joined the EC in 1986 after long negotiations.
  • Greater presence of Spanish companies abroad
  • Spain joined the Iraq war for political reasons.
  • Top companies: Santander, La Caixa, BBVA
  • Close links with Latin America.
  • Territorial disputes involving Ceuta and Melilla with Morocco, and Gibraltar with Britain.