History of Science and Technology

Historical Antecedents in Science and Technology

• Science and technology has continuously developed across space and time
• Scientific and technological innovations have significantly impacted social, cultural, political, and economic aspects of society, and vice versa
• Antecedents are factors, things, or events that paved the way for advanced scientific and technological innovations

Time Periods

• Prehistory
• Antiquity
• Medieval/Middle Ages
• Renaissance
• Modern Period

Prehistory: Stone Age

• Paleolithic is the old stone age which saw the development of stone tools
• Mesolithic means middle, this was the period between Paleolithic and Neolithic eras
• Neolithic is the new stone age and saw the development of metal tools which led to the Copper or Chalcolithic, Bronze and Iron ages and the development of agriculture
• The ancestors were hunters and gatherers
• They were nomadic
• They created a primitive culture and language

Prehistory: Stone Age to Bronze Age

• Controlling fire was a crucial turning point in human evolution
• Burning took place in Wonderwerk Cave approximately 1.0 Ma
• Brains evolved
• Cognitive function, communication, and cooperation developed so knowledge expanded
• Knowledge was preserved and there was progression building on past knowledge
• The main purpose of knowledge retention and advancement was survival
• Ancestors migrated out of Africa.
• Reasons for ancestor migration include decreased resources and climate changes
• Ancestors shifted from hunting and gathering to focus on agriculture
• Agriculture provided a stable food source and promoted cooperation
• Civilizations settled mostly along river valleys in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, and China
• Increased agricultural efficiency led to an improved quality of life and increase in population, which then resulted in the rise of civilizations

Ancient Civilizations

• The rise of ancient civilization paved the way for advances in science and technology
• Resulting in better ways of communication, transportation, weapons, self-organization, and living in general

Mesopotamia

• Mesopotamia means "land between two rivers (Tigris and Euphrates)"
• It is located in the Near East
• It included Sumer, Babylon, Ur, Uruk and other city states
• Agriculture flourished because of the fertile land (part of the Fertile Crescent)
• People transitioned from being food gatherers (hunters) to farm cultivators
• The plow was invented to dig the ground where seeds were planted
• Irrigation and dikes were constructed to bring water to the farmlands and control flooding of the rivers
• There was a shift from rural to highly populated and developed urban areas referred to as Urbanization
• The city of Uruk is considered the first true city in the world
• Buildings were made of sunbaked bricks (because no stones and lumber were available)
• Mesopotamia saw many innovations in architecture and engineering
• The Great Ziggurat of Ur was an engineering feat, the ziggurat is a pyramidal stepped temple tower
• Mesopotamia is the home of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
• Roads were developed to facilitate faster and easier travel using sunbaked bricks on the ground
• The first writing system called cuneiform around 3200 BCE was established
• Cuneiform was written using a stylus which made wedge-like impressions in soft clay that represent word-signs, phonograms or word-concepts
• Mesopotamians primarily travelled on rivers and seas
• They constructed sailboats to transport heavy products
• They used the first wheels but not for transportation rather as potter's wheels and for farm work and food processes
• The wheel and axle (a type of simple machine) made mass production easier
• Farmers were able to mill gains faster with less effort
• Other Contributions Include:
  • Mathematics
  • Concept of time
  • Astronomy (astrology)
  • Code of Hammurabi

Ancient Egypt

• Ancient Egypt was located in North Africa, along the Nile River
• Part of the Fertile Crescent, like Mesopotamia
• Agriculture and irrigation were key to the civilizations survival
• Egyptians developed papyrus as paper from the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus) and ink from soot
• The ancient Egyptians developed a system of writing based on symbols called hieroglyphs
• Egyptians constructed palaces, temples, statues, and pyramids
• The water clock or clepsydra was invented
• Egyptians utilized gravity which affected the flow of water from one vessel to another
• The amount of water remaining in the devise determined how much time has elapsed since it was full
• Egyptians developed a method of embalming called mummification
• Egyptians are well known for using cosmetics, wigs, and other paraphernalia
• Egyptians developed Mathematics, metrology, astronomy, and medicine

The Age of Antiquity: Ancient Greece

• An archipelago in southeastern Europe
• The birthplace of western philosophy and made significant contributions to the field of science and technology
• The age started during the Archaic period

Minoan Civilization (2000-1400 BCE)

• Flourished in the island of Crete
• Created magnificent palace complexes
• Had a written language (Linear A) which has not been deciphered yet
• Contributions include: architecture, water management, arts and crafts

Mycenaean Civilization (1600-1100 BCE)

• Occupied mainland Greece
• Created jewelries and crafts
• Used a written language (Linear B) which has not been deciphered yet
• Contributions include: jewelries, crafts, a form of early government
• Occupied mainland Greece
• Created jewelries and crafts
• Had a written language (Linear B) which is an early form of Greek

The Dark Ages (1100-750 BCE)

• Interval between the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization and Archaic period
• Early Iron Age
• Potteries with geometric designs were common in the later part (hence also called the Geometric Period)

Archaic Period (759-480 BCE)

• The development of the polis (urban centers); also known as the city state
• Synoekism - amalgamation of villages
• Trading settlements were established across the Mediterranean
• The Phoenician alphabet adapted in Greece

Classical Period (480-323 BCE)

• A period during the Persian Wars until the death of Alexander the Great
• Political and cultural achievements
• Democracy (demokratia) saw the rule of the people
• The Plague of Athens had undefined contributing factors
• Thucydides described the Plague of Athens in his History of the Peloponnesian War
• Ancient philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) rose to prominence in this time
• Philosophy (love for wisdom) is the process to understand fundamental truths about people, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the world and to each other with the goal to ask, answer, and argue
• Educational institutions today derived their names from centers of learning established in ancient Athens such as gymnasium, academy (from Plato), lycée (from Aristotle's lyceum)
• Advancements in art and architecture
• Investigation of diseases in medicine
• Hippocrates was the Father of Medicine

Hellenistic Period (323-30 BCE)

• Upon Alexander the Great's death, his generals struggled to find power and the right to succeed him
• Three dynasties emerged:
  • The Ptolemies (Ptolemy): Egypt and South Syria (capital is Alexandria)
  • The Seleucids (Seleucus, the Attalus): Asia Minor and Persia (capital is Antioch, then Pergamum)
  • The Antigonids (Antigonus): Macedonia and Greece (capital is Athens)
• Greek culture spread
• Progress in different fields such as art, literature, architecture, science, and philosophy
• Science flourished due to:
  • Alexander the Great encouraged research
  • Stimulus provided for intellectual inquiry by the fusion of Chaldean and Egyptian science with the learning of the Greeks
  • Interest in luxury and comfort and demand for practical knowledge
• Scientific achievements in mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine
  • Euclid: Father of Geometry
  • Archimedes: principle of buoyancy
  • Hipparchus: precession of equinoxes; trigonometry
• Importance was given to the documentation of knowledge and writings
• The Great Library of Alexandria was made

Greek Medicine

• Greek medicine intersected with the physical and spiritual worlds
• They worshiped Asclepius (god of medicine) and his daughter Hygeia (goddess of health; where we get the word hygiene)
• Focused on a healthy lifestyle
• Followed the belief of 4 Humours
• These 4 Humours were developed by Hippocrates
• They made up of 4 liquids in the body
  • Blood
  • Phlegm
  • Yellow Bile
  • Black Bile
• It was believed that for people to remain healthy the Humours needed to be balanced
• People followed this belief until the middle ages

Ancient Greek Inventions

• Alarm clock with water or small stones or sand that dropped into drums which sounded the alarm
• The upper vessel would drop water below it, which was set to be filled at a given time, then siphons the water to the next vessel at a faster rate, causing the expulsion of contained air, creating a whistling noise
• It is believed to have been used by Plato to signal the start of lecture
• Watermill powered by water rather than animals
• Was used for milling of grains
• It resulted in mass production of rice, cereals, and flour

Age of Antiquity: Ancient Rome

• Romulus and Remus were the legendary founders of Rome
• It originated as a small settlement along the Tiber river
• Culture and way of thinking was influenced by the Greeks
• Started out as a monarchy
• Evolved into a republic
• Then became an empire
• Major contributions include:
  • Romance languages (Italian, Spanish, French)
  • Calendar
  • Alphabet
  • Numerals
  • Christianity
• Achievements include the construction of architecture, engineering, sanitation, and prioritized hygiene
• The also practice the branch of medicine, health. And performed specially on soldiers during campaigns
• Galen contributed to the study of anatomy and physiology
• Galen especially contributed to the study the circulatory system and diseases that resulted from Dyscrasia (imbalance of the humours)
• The goal of his medicine practice was to seek Eucrasia (balance)
• Suffered through plagues such as the Antonine and Justinian
• Ptolemy developed a geocentric model of the universe which persisted until the Middle Ages
• The Western Roman Empire fell leading to the start of the Medieval Period or Middle Ages