History of Primitive Calculators

The abacus, originating from China, is the first automated counting device, invented around 2,500 years ago for arithmetic operations.
John Napier introduced Napier's Bone in 1617, a tool for multiplication and division, and is also credited with the invention of logarithms, simplifying multiplication into addition. Its use persisted in Europe until the mid-1960s.

Al-Khwarizmi, a cleric from Tashkent, authored a pivotal book on algorithms in the 12th century, laying the groundwork for modern software.

Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline, the first mechanical calculator, at the age of 18. Created in 1643, it performed addition and subtraction using a gear system, though its complexity was exacerbated by the then non-decimal French currency.
William Oughtred developed the slide calculator in 1630, a tool for addition and subtraction, independently resembling a similar invention by Delamain.
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz created the Stepped Reckoner, the first device for multiplication and division, though it suffered from reliability issues due to contemporary part accuracy. He also contributed to the documentation of the binary system.

George Boole formulated Boolean algebra, foundational for logic systems in modern computing, utilizing symbols like < and > for inequalities.
Charles Babbage designed the Difference Engine for automating polynomial calculations and the Analytical Engine, which was programmable using punch cards. However, he faced funding challenges that prevented construction of these machines.
Ada Lovelace, known as one of the first female mathematicians and the first programmer, documented Babbage's work, creating an algorithm for the Difference Engine focused on Bernoulli numbers.

Herman Hollerith invented a punched-card tabulator for the 1890 U.S. Census, utilizing electricity for data processing, leading to the formation of the Tabulating Machine Company, which eventually became IBM, now a leading computer manufacturer.
Alan Turing created the Turing machine, a theoretical model outlining problems solvable by computation. He also developed the Colossus, a computer designed to decrypt the German enigma code during WWII.
Howard Aiken constructed the Harvard Mark I in 1944, based on Babbage's designs and operated using relays. Grace Hopper contributed as a programmer for this machine, capable of adding or subtracting 23-digit numbers in 0.3 seconds.

The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was the first electronic digital computer, reliant on vacuum tubes instead of electromechanical switches, lacking programs storage due to its wired circuitry.
Shockley and Bardeen innovated the semiconductor, replacing vacuum tubes and enhancing the development of computers.
John von Neumann consulted on the ENIAC project, contributing to the conceptual development of the EDVAC, which could store both programs and data, a principle foundational to almost all contemporary computers.

Questions and Answers