Final Assessment Plant biology

History of Plant Use in Medicine

• Plants were used to treat diseases since prehistoric times.
• A Neanderthal man's grave from 60,000 years ago contained plants identified through pollen analysis, indicating medicinal value.
• A 4,000-year-old Sumerian clay tablet is the earliest record of plant remedies.
• Ancient Egyptians possessed extensive knowledge of medicinal plants and medical practices.

Ancient Egypt

• Physicians were highly respected and specialized.
• Important medical papyri include the Ebers Papyrus, Edwin Smith Papyrus, Hearst Papyrus, and Kahun Gynecological Papyrus.

Edwin Smith Papyrus

• Edwin Smith purchased the papyrus in Luxor, Egypt, in 1862.
• Written around 1700 BC, it is based on older records from around 2640 BC, the time of Imhotep.
• Imhotep was a physician of the 3rd Dynasty.
• It mainly covers wounds and their treatment.

Ebers Papyrus

• Dating from 1550 B.C., it is one of the oldest medical papyri.
• Contains the most important and complete medical information recovered.
• Written in hieratic script, similar to hieroglyphics.
• Scroll is 20.23 m long and 30 cm. in height.
• Contains 110 pages with 700 magical formulas and folk remedies, and is currently located at the University Library of Leipzig in Germany.
• Includes a description of the circulatory system with the existence of blood vessels throughout the body and the heart's function as a center of the blood supply.
• Includes references to diabetes mellitus, hookworm, filariasis, and arthritis.
• Features a section on psychiatry describing severe despondency (depression).

Ancient China

• The Pun-tsao (Great Herbal), a pharmacopoeia, includes thousands of herbal cures attributed to Shen-nung, a legendary Emperor who lived 4500 years ago.
• Emperor Shen-nung investigated the medicinal value of hundreds of herbs.
• Knowledge passed on orally for centuries.
• Ephedra was used for asthma.

Ancient India

• Herbal medicine dates back several thousand years to the Rig-Veda, the collection of Hindu sacred verses.
• Ayurvedic medicine is a health care system based on the Rig-Veda.
• Snakeroot, Rauwolfia serpentina, is a useful plant from Ayurvedic tradition.

Rauwolfia serpentina (Snakeroot)

• A flowering plant species in the family Apocynaceae.
• Alexander the Great used it to cure his general Ptolemy from a poisoned arrow.
• Contains reserpine, used to treat high blood pressure and mental disorders like schizophrenia and was popular in the West between 1954 to 1957.
• Used for millennia as an antidote against venomous reptile bites.

Western Medicine Foundations

• Ancient records showed native peoples discovering and developing medicinal uses of local plants worldwide.
• Herbal medicine of ancient Greece laid the foundations for Western medicine.

Ancient Greek and Roman Medicine

• Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), a Greek physician known as the Father of Medicine, used various herbal remedies in his treatments.
• Theophrastus was the father of Botany, offered the first systematic of plants.
• Dioscorides, a Roman physician in the 1st century, wrote De Materia Medica, which described over 600 plant species with medicinal value.
• Galen was a Roman physician in the 2nd century.
• Galenic formulation involves preparing and compounding medicines to optimize their absorption.

De Materia Medica

• Was universally used pharmacopoeia in the Greek, Roman, and Arab worlds from the 2nd to 16th century.
• Dioscorides listed 600 plants, 90 minerals, and 30 animal products with drawings.
• Descriptions included therapeutic properties, preparation directions, uses, and side effects.
• Willow bark tea is a precursor to aspirin.
• Greek and Roman women used silphium as a contraceptive for 1,000 years where it is now extinct.

Silphium

• Silphium's genus is Ferula, of the parsley family.
• Related to giant fennel.
• Used by ancient women for contraception.
• During Greek and Roman civilization, this rare plant grew in a narrow 30-mile band along the dry mountain sides facing the Mediterranean Sea.

After the Fall of Rome

• Little new knowledge was added in Europe during the Dark Ages.
• De Materia Medica was copied and recopied with illustrations, translations into other languages, and annotations.
• Knowledge was added in the Arab world.

During the Middle Ages

• Western knowledge was preserved in monasteries.
• Manuscripts were translated or copied for monastery libraries.
• Monks gathered herbs in the field or in their own herb gardens for use by the sick and injured.
• Monastery gardens can still be found in many countries.

Age of Herbals

• The Renaissance's beginning in the early 15th century was a renewal of learning in all fields.
• There was a revival of herbalism for medicinal plants.

Herbals

• Beautifully illustrated books described plants, when to collect them, and their useful parts.
• Covered medicinal and culinary uses.
• Also included misinformation and superstition.
• Advocated the Doctrine of Signatures.

Doctrine of Signatures

• Medicinal use was recognized by distinct "signatures" visible on the plant that corresponded to human anatomy.
• Red bloodroot juice was used to treat blood disorders.
• Lobed appearance of liverworts aided the liver.
• Snakeroot is an antidote for snake venom.
• Belief in this concept developed independently among different cultures.

Medicine and Botany

• Medical schools were established in Europe during the XVI-XVII centuries.
• The study of both medicine and botany was included in education.
• Medical students knew the herbs and were the early botanists.

18th Century

• Many herbal remedies had a sound scientific basis
• Some became useful prescriptions drugs.
• William Withering scientifically investigated foxglove to treat dropsy (congestive heart failure).
• His studies set a standard for pharmaceutical chemistry (1775-1785).

19th Century

• Scientists began to purify the active extracts from medicinal plants.
• Serturner isolated morphine from the opium poppy, representing a breakthrough in pharmaceutical chemistry in 1806.
• The first synthetic drugs, were developed in the middle of the 19th century based on natural products.

20th Century

• Medicinal plants contributed significantly to prescription drugs
• 25% of prescriptions written in the U.S. contained plant-derived active ingredients.
• 50% of prescriptions written in the U.S. contained active ingredients if fungal products are included.
• An even larger percentage are based on semi-synthetic or wholly synthetic ingredients originally isolated from plants.

Late 20th to Early 21st Centuries

• Renewed interest in plants for medically useful compounds.
• Taxol(anti-cancer) from the Pacific yew, Purple coneflower for the immune system, Ginkgo for memory improvement have seen recent success.

Growth of Alternative Medicine

• Dramatic increase in the use of alternative medical treatments.
• Refers to a wide range of therapies outside the mainstream of traditional Western medicine, which includes aromatherapy, acupuncture, biofeedback, chiropractic manipulation, herbal medicine, and hypnosis.

Traditional (Herbal) Medicine Today

• 75%-85% of the population in developing nations rely on herbal medicine as their only health care.
• Medicinal herbs are sold alongside vegetables in village markets.
• Practitioners undergo training to learn the plants, their uses, and preparation of remedies.

People's Republic of China

• Traditional herbal medicine is incorporated into a modern health care system.
• A blend of herbal medicine, acupuncture, and Western medicine is used.
• Thousands of species of medicinal herbs are available for the Chinese herbalist.
• Chinese apothecaries contain an incredible assortment of dried plant specimens.

India

• Traditional systems are separate from Western medicine.
• At universities, medical students are trained in Western medicine.
• Most people use traditional systems with Ayurvedic medicine of Hindu origin and Unani medicine of Muslim and Greek origin.
• Economics also play a factor as manufactured pharmaceuticals are too expensive for most.

Other Areas

• Interest in medicinal plants has focused on indigenous peoples in many parts of the world.
• Ethnobotanists spend time with local tribes to learn their medical lore before it is lost forever.
• Especially important among native people in the tropical rain forests.

Tropical Rain Forests

• Widespread destruction threatens to eliminate thousands of species that have never been scientifically investigated for medical potential.
• Erosion of tribal cultures is also a threat to this knowledge.
• The younger members of native groups are drawn away from their lifestyles, so oral traditions are not passed on.

Herbs

• Easy to obtain
• No processing is needed.
• High level of safety.
• Variable efficacy, generally mild effects.

Coffee

• Coffea Arabica, C. canephora, gives stimulation, antioxidants, and appetite stimulant.
• Causes Gastritis.

Blueberries, Bilberries

• Vaccinium corymbosum, V. myrtillus treat urinary infection, and vision improvements, and protect against cancer.
• Assist with diabetes and common cold.
• Can help with diarrhea.

Chamomile

• Matricaria recutita gives sedation and calming an antioxidant.
• Safe to use.

Dandelion

• Taraxacum officinale is a natural diuretic, aids stimulate digestion and work as a laxative.
• Safe to use.

Green Tea

• Camellia sinensis give antioxidant, cancer prevention assists with weight loss.
• Aides in lowering cholesterol, increases energy.
• Safe to use.

Aloe

• Aloe Vera assist with burns, psoriasis, acts as a fresh food preservative.
• Aides wound healing and is antibacterial.
• Safe to use.

Enchinacea

• Echinacea purpurea gives immune system stimulation, cuts cold time in half.
• Side effects include, allergic reactions, worsen diabetes, GI disturbances.
• Can worsen HIV, TB.

Garlic

• Allium sativum used to treat Hypertension, reduction of cholesterol, Lowers HBP, act as a digestive aid and give cancer protection antimicrobial.
• May cause Nausea, Sweating, give a Bad smell.

Ginkgo

• Ginkgo biloba improves cognition and memory, improves peripheral circulation.
• May cause Headaches, Nausea.
• No effect on Alzheimer’s

Ginseng

• Panax quinquefolius, P. Ginseng boosts energy and enhances physical, sexual, mental performance.
• Can cause Insomnia, Allergies, Diarrhea, Depression and Hypertension.

Saw Palmetto

• Serenoa repens helps with benign prostatic hyperplasia, and anti-inflammatory.
• May cause Libido loss to be minimally effective.

Ephedra

• Ephedra sinica is used to treat asthma and common cold.
• Very dangerous, Psychosis, Heart rhythm abnormality, Heart attacks.

Valerian

• Valeriana officinalis used for Sedation; insomnia, and nervousness.
• May cause Fatigue and prolongs effect of tranquilizers and alcohol.

Foxglove

• Digitalis purpurea used to treat Heart failure and Rhythm abnormalities.
• It is a Prescription only medication.

White Poppy

• Papaver somniferum used to treat pain
• Controlled substances include, Morphine and Codeine.

Poisonous And Medicinal

• Use of plant is Just a matter of degree.
• Nicotine is a great example, cigarettes are smoked because the nicotine is a stimulant.
• Extremely toxic, on par with cyanide, heroin, atropine.
• LD50 is less than 5 mg per kg of body weight and average lethal dose is 7 drops of pure nicotine.

Main Types of Plant Poisons

• Alkaloids, Derived from amino acids; nitogen containing bases and most affect the nervous system because they mimic or block the action of nerve transmitters.
• Glycosides,Sugar-based with attached subgroup and it is the subgroup that determines toxicity.
  • Cyanogenic glycosides release cyanide and Cardiac glycosides act on heart.
• Oxalic acid: Crystalline structure is irritating, like glass shards
• Phenols: Acidic compounds
• Saponins: Cause haemolysis, tympania in rumens

Plants Synthesizing Alkaloids

• Synthesizing alkaloids produces certain harmful compounds in large doses.

False Hellebores

• Veratrum is a genus highly poisonous perennial herbs of the Melanthiaceae family that are known as the False Hellebores or Corn Lilies.
• Toxic for man animals, bees.
• Intoxication possible through milk.

Aconitum

• A genus of flowering plant belonging to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) which has over 250 species, and causes heart.
• Very toxic, 300-400 g of tubers could be lethal for horse, causing nervous lessions.

Poison Hemlock

• Conium maculatum (Umbelliferae Family) resembles wild carrot.
• Socrates was poisoned with this.
• European weed, and contains toxic alkaloids related to nicotine.

Celandine (Tetterwort)

• Chelidonium majus is a herbaceous perennial plant, the only species in the genus Chelidonium and the whole plant is toxic in moderate doses as it contains a range of isoquinoline alkaloids.
• Possible cause of endemic glaucoma.
• Toxic for humans and mammals.

Papaver

• A genus of 70-100 species native to temperate and cold regions of Eurasia, Africa and North America in the Poppy family, Papaveraceae
• Milk may cause skin irritation.
• Contains several narcotic alkaloids, including morphine and codeine.
• Toxic for animals, bees.

Bloodroot

• Sanguinaria canadensis; Papaveraceae Family.
• Contains several alkaloids including sanguinarine and is very toxic.
• Used to induce glaucoma in laboratory animals.
• Originates form Canada but also presents in growing gardens.

Barberries

• Berberis the barberries, or pepperidge bushes is a genus of about 450-500 species of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from 1-5 m tall with thorny shoots, native to the temperate and subtropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, North America and South America.
• The unriped (green) berries are toxic.

Potato

• Solanum tuberosum; Nightshade Family with the bitter alkaloid, solanine that is present in green parts of leaves, sprouts and tubers.
• Don't eat green potatoes!

Jimson Weed

• (Devil's Tumpet, Devil's snare).
• Datura stramonium; Solanaceae family.
• All parts of Datura plants contain dangerous levels of poison and may be fatal if ingested by humans or animals, including livestock and pets.
• The active ingredients are the alkaloids atropine, hyoscyamine and scopolamine.
• Datura intoxication typically produces a complete inability to differentiate reality from fantasy (delirium) where an individual experiences hyperthermia, tachycardia and photophobia and amnesia.

Henbane

• Hyoscyamus niger, also known as black henbane, is a plant of the family Solanaceae that originated in Eurasia but is globally distributed.
• Toxic, even fatal, to animals in low doses.
• Common effects of henbane ingestion in humans include hallucinations, dilated pupils and restlessness.

Belladonna

• (Death cherries)
• Atropa belladonna or belladonna or deadly nightshade, a perennial herbaceous plant family Solanaceae.
• The foliage and berries are extremely toxic, containing alkaloids.
• The consumption of 2-5 berries by children and 10-20 berries by adults can be lethal. The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part.

Hepatotoxic Plants

• Alcaloids containing pyrrolizidine structure are toxic for liver.

Senecio

• Senecio is a genus of the daisy family (Asteraceae) that includes ragworts and groundsels.
• About 1000 species, but only some are toxic for animals:

Lupinus

• Commonly known as Lupins, is a genus in the legume family (Fabaceae) which comprises up to 600 species.
• Some are hepatotoxic and produce different alcaloids: -Lupinus albus

Photosensitivity

• An abnormal skin reaction to direct sunlight exposure. It is unrelated to a sunburn.
• These reactions are due to photosensitization, the accumulation of photosensitive compounds beneath the skin.
• In some cases, the substances come from ingested plants or drugs, after being metabolized or not. Photosensitivity reactions are usually seen in herbivorous or omnivorous animals, though such reactions are not uncommon among carnivores.

Hypericum

• A genus of about 400 species of flowering plants in the family Hypericaceae. All members may be referred to as St. John's Wort, though they are also commonly just called hypericum, and some are known as tutsan.
• All St. John's wort have sensibilizators.

Sosnowsky's Hogweed

• Heracleum sosnowskyi is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, originally native to Caucasus.
• All parts of H. sosnowskyi contain the intense toxic allergen furanocoumarin dangerous for humans because even small drops of plant's juice cause photosensitivity and burns.

Clover

• (Trifolium) is a genus of about 300 species of plants in the leguminous pea family Fabaceae.
• Sensitivity depends on age, species and colour of animals (mostly young horses)
• Other plants from Fabaceae family such as Vetches (Vicia), Medicks (Medicago), Melilot (Melilotus) also can cause photosensitivity.

Plants Producing Glycosides

• Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides that can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available.
• Some glycosides act strongly on heart or other organs.

Digitalis

• (Foxgloves) is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, shrubs, and biennials that are commonly. Called foxgloves.
• Contains several deadly physiological and chemically related cardiac and steroidal glycosides with early symptoms of ingestion include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hallucinations, deliriumMay cause death.

Lily Of The Valley

• Convallaria majalis possibly the only species in the genus Convallaria in the flowering plant family Ruscaceae.
• All parts, including the berries, of the lily of the valley are highly poisonous. Roughly 38 different cardiac glycosides have been found in the plant, some among others

Herb Paris

• (Paris quadrifolia) (Herb Paris, True-lover's Knot) is a species of the genus Paris in the family Melanthiaceae.
• Each plant only produces only one, blueberry-like fruit, which is poisonous (CNS paralysis), and is avoided by animals.

Other Toxic Plants

• Oleandr.
• *Oleander (Nerium oleander)
• Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana)

Fungal Pathogens On Food

• Ergot poisoning is caused by fungus (Claviceps spp.) growing on Rye or Wheat or other grasses and Grain containing more than 0.3% ergot is prohibited from sale.
• Has over 40 alkaloids present related to lysergic acid, with Symptoms includes irritable digestive tract, loss of balance, convulsions, drowsiness.

Aflatoxins/Mycotoxins

• Produced by moulds are Contaminants of grain, nuts or other foods
• Penicillium, Aspergillus, Monascus cause confusion between plant toxicity and mold toxicity.

Cherries

• Peaches And Plums ( Prunus spp. ).
• Is in the Rose Family, where Leaves, bark, and seeds (but not fruits) are toxic.
• Contains a cyanogenic glycoside (amygdalin) resulting in cyanide poisoning if ingested.
• Almonds are the seeds of a species of Prunus amygdalus (sin. P. dulcis) that produces low levels of toxin.

Mushrooms

• Death cap (Amanita phalloides);
• European Destroying Angel (Amanita virosa);
• Deadly fibrecap (Inocybe patoullardii)
• Lethal webcap (Cortinarius orellanus)
• Historical figures believed to have died from Death Cap poisoning (or other similar, toxic Amanitas) were Roman Emperor Claudius, Pope Clement VII, Tsaritsa Natalia Naryshkina, andRoman Emperor Charles VI.