History of Indonesia: Prehistory

• The history of Indonesia spans from prehistoric times, marked by the discovery of "Java Man" dating back 1.7 million years, to the present day.
• Indonesia's history is divided into the Pre-Colonial Era, the Colonial Era, the Early Independence Era, the New Order Era, and the Reform Era.

Prehistory

• The Indonesian archipelago sits at the meeting point of the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and Pacific tectonic plates.
• The current form of the Indonesian islands emerged around 10,000 years ago, after the end of the Ice Age.
• Homo erectus, known as Java Man, inhabited the region between 2 million and 500,000 years ago.
• The "human Flores" (Homo floresiensis) discovery suggests H. erectus survival until the last Ice Age.
• Homo sapiens arrived in Nusantara around 100,000 years ago, migrating along Asia's coasts from West Asia.
• Between 60,000 and 70,000 years ago, they reached Papua and Australia, becoming ancestors of Melanesian people and bringing the Paleolithic kapak lonjong culture.
• Austronesian-speaking people with a Neolithic culture migrated from South China via Formosa and the Philippines from 3000 BC onwards.
• The migrants brought farming techniques, including rice cultivation (from the 8th century BC), buffalo farming, bronze and iron processing, weaving, megalithic practices, and animistic/dynamistic beliefs.
• By the 1st century BC, settlements and small kingdoms existed, influenced by Indian beliefs due to trade relations.

Hindu-Buddhist Era

• Indian scholars wrote about Dwipantara or Hindu kingdoms Jawa Dwipa on Java and Sumatra or Swarna Dwipa around 200 BC.
• The earliest physical evidence indicates the existence of four Hindu kingdoms between the 1st and 5th centuries.
• The kingdoms mentioned are Salakanagara in West Java (130 AD), Kandis in Sumatra, Tarumanagara dominating West Java, and Kutai on the Mahakam River in Kalimantan.
• Buddhism reached the region by 425 AD.
• Nusantara had a legacy of civilization with two major empires: Sriwijaya in Sumatra (7th-14th centuries) and Majapahit in Java (13th-16th centuries).
• There were also smaller kingdoms linked through marriage and trade.

Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms

• In the 4th century, the Kutai Kingdom in East Kalimantan left inscriptions on stone pillars (yupa).
• Kundungga, a local, founded the kingdom, and Hinduism was adopted by his son Aswawarman.
• King Mulawarman brought Brahmins from India, leading to prosperity.
• The kingdom's center was in Muara Kaman (Kutai Kartanegara regency, East Kalimantan).
• Some historians suggest the kingdom's name was Martapura, from the Salasilah Raja dalam Negeri Kutai Kertanegara book.
• From the 6th to 7th centuries, the Hindu-Buddhist Tarumanagara Kingdom existed in West Java, followed by the Sunda Kingdom until the 16th century.
• From the 7th to 14th centuries, the Buddhist Sriwijaya kingdom thrived in Sumatra.
• I-Tsing, a Chinese explorer, visited Palembang, Sriwijaya's capital, around the 670s.
• Sriwijaya controlled areas as far as West Java and the Malay Peninsula at its peak.
• Gajah Mada, Majapahit's Patih (1331-1364), gained power over present-day Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula.
• Gajah Mada's legacy includes law codification and cultural influence in Java, like the Ramayana epic.

Islamic Kingdoms Era

• Islamic sultanates emerged in Indonesia around the 12th century, contributing to civilization, though Islam arrived as early as the 7th century.
• The Strait of Malacca was a busy international shipping route connecting the Tang Dynasty in China, Sriwijaya in Southeast Asia, and the Umayyad Caliphate in West Asia.
• According to Tang Dynasty sources, an Arab trader led a Muslim Arab settlement on Sumatra's coast in the late 7th century.
• In 718 AD, King Srindrawarman of Sriwijaya Jambi requested a missionary to explain Islam from Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz of the Umayyad Caliphate.
• By 720 AD, Srindravarman converted to Islam, renaming Sriwijaya Jambi 'Sribuza Islam', but Sriwijaya Palembang attacked it in 730 AD.
• The Peureulak Sultanate was established on 1 Muharram 225 H (November 12, 839 AD).
• Islam spread through trade relations outside Nusantara, with missionaries from Muslim countries working as traders.
• Key Islamic kingdoms included the Demak Sultanate, Samudera Pasai Kingdom, Banten Sultanate, Mataram Sultanate, Gowa Sultanate, Ternate Sultanate, and Tidore Sultanate.
• Approaching the end of the 16th century, Islam replaced Hinduism and Buddhism as the main religion in Java and Sumatra. Only Bali kept a Hindu majority.
• Christian and Islamic preachers were known to be active in the eastern islands in the 16th and 17th centuries, contributing to the region's large religious diversity.

Colonial Era

• Afonso de Albuquerque was instrumental in making Nusantara known to Europeans, leading to colonization by the Portuguese, British, Dutch, and Spanish.
• Portuguese ships sailed from the Tagus River through the Atlantic, around the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, and to the Strait of Malacca.
• Motivations for Portuguese expansion included trade (Feitoria), military dominance (Fortaleza), and spreading Catholicism (Igreja), which can be summarized as gold, glory, and gospel.
• Albuquerque led an expedition that conquered Malacca in 1511, giving Portugal control over the spice trade from Asia to Europe.
• Antonio de Abreu led a Portuguese expedition that reached Maluku, the center of the spice trade, after the conquest of Malacca.

Portuguese and Spanish Colonization

• Nusantara became an important maritime port for Portugal between 1511 and 1526, establishing maritime routes towards Sumatra, Java, Banda, and Maluku.
• In 1511, the Portuguese defeated the Malacca Kingdom and in 1522, they reached the Sunda Port in Java to establish a trade agreement with the Sunda Kingdom.
• The trade agreement was signed on August 21, 1522, commemorated by the Prasasti Perjanjian Sunda-Portugal monument.
• The agreement permitted Portugal to build warehouses or fortresses in Sunda Kelapa.
• Albuquerque dispatched Antonio de Abreu in 1512 to find the Spice Islands.
• Portuguese presence in Indonesia is still evident in Flores, Solor, and Maluku.
• The inhabitants of Kampong Tugu in Jakarta identify as "Portuguese descendants".
• The Portuguese were the first Europeans in Maluku in 1512, led by Antonio de Abreu and Fransisco Serrao.
• In Ternate, their friendship with local rulers allowed them to build a fort in Pikaoli.
• The Portuguese implemented monopolistic trade practices and spread Christianity, leading to conflict.
• Fransiskus Xaverius, a famous missionary, arrived in Ambon in 1546 and later went to Ternate.
• The Portuguese surrendered to Sultan Baabullah in 1575, losing control.
• The Dutch exploited the Moluccan's resistance to the Portuguese to gain a foothold.
• By 1605, the Dutch forced the Portuguese to surrender their defenses in Ambon and Tidore.
• The English fort in Kambelo, Seram Island, was destroyed by the Dutch, strengthening Dutch control in Maluku.
• The VOC's establishment in 1602 solidified Dutch dominance in Maluku, with Jan Pieterszoon Coen controlling the clove trade for 350 years.
• The VOC ousted rivals like the Portuguese, Spanish, and English, causing suffering for the Moluccan people.
• The Portuguese built a fort in Ternate in 1511 and another in Amurang, North Sulawesi, in 1512.
• North Sulawesi was ceded to Spain following a Portuguese defeat (1560-1660), uniting the Portuguese and Spanish crowns.
• The VOC expelled the Portuguese from Ternate in the 17th century, causing their retreat to Timor Timur (since 1515).

Indigenous Resistance

• The Portuguese had monopolistic trade practices, which led to resistance from local populations.
• From 1512-1560, the Minahasa people successfully expelled the Portuguese from their region.
• In 1511, Albuquerque's forces attacked Malaka, but the Portuguese force was superior.
• In 1527, Fatahillah's forces from Demak controlled Banten, Sunda Kelapa, and Cirebon and renamed Sunda Kelapa to Jayakarta (Jakarta).
• From 1554-1555, Acehnese resistance thwarted Portuguese efforts.
• In 1615 and 1629, Aceh, under Sultan Iskandar Muda, attacked the Portuguese in Malaka.
• The Portuguese first landed in Maluku in 1511 and resentment grew due to their monopolistic trade practices.
• In 1533, the Sultan of Ternate called for the expulsion of the Portuguese from Maluku.
• In 1570, Ternate, led by Sultan Hairun, resisted but he was killed in Benteng Duurstede.
• Sultan Baabullah continued the resistance in 1574, expelling the Portuguese and forcing them to reside in Timor.

Timeline of European Colonization

• 1521: Spain lands in North Sulawesi.
• 1560: Spain establishes a post in Manado.
• 1617: The Minahasa people revolt against Spanish rule.
• 1646: The Spanish are expelled from Minahasa and North Sulawesi. Spain tried to regain control, ending in 1692.

Early Portuguese Timeline (1509-1520)

• 1509: The Portuguese first arrive in Melaka.
• 1511: Albuquerque sails from Goa to Malaka, conquering it on August 10.
• The Sultan of Melaka, Mahmud Syah, flees to Riau.
• The Portuguese in Melaka destroy a fleet from the Demak Sultanate.
• Pati Unus becomes ruler in Jepara.
• Albuquerque sends Antonio de Abreu to explore eastward in December.
• 1512: De Abreu's expedition reaches Madura, Bali, Lombok, Aru, and Banda.
• Two ships wreck in Banda, De Breu returns to Melaka; Francisco Serrão continues to Ambon, Ternate, and Tidore, establishing a post in Ternate.
• 1513: Jepara and Palembang attack the Portuguese in Melaka but are repelled. The Portuguese are allowed to build a fortress in Sunda Kelapa (Jakarta).
• The Portuguese contact Raja Udara, ruler of the former Majapahit kingdom.
• 1514: Ali Mughayat Syah establishes the Aceh Sultanate.
• 1515: The Portuguese first arrive in Timor.
• 1518: Sultan Mahmud of Melaka takes power in Johor.
• Raden Patah dies, and Pati Unus becomes Sultan of Demak.
• 1520: Aceh begins to dominate the northeast coast of Sumatra.
• Balinese forces attack Lombok. Portuguese traders visit Flores and Solor.
• Banjar in Kalimantan becomes an Islamic Sultanate.

Portuguese Timeline (1521-1530)

• 1521: Adipati Unus leads a Demak and Cirebon fleet against the Portuguese in Melaka and Terenggono becomes Sultan of Demak.
• Sunan Gunung Jati leaves Pasai for Mecca.
• Magelhaens' expedition sails between Lembata and Pantar.
• 1522: Portuguese expedition under De Brito arrives in Banda in February and in Ternate in May, building a fort.
• The Sunda Kingdom requests Portuguese help against Demak.
• The Portuguese build a fort in Hitu, Ambon.
• 1523: Sunan Gunung Jati returns from Mecca.
• 1524: Sunan Gunung Jati and Hasanuddin weaken the Sunda Kingdom and its alliance.
• 1525: Hasanuddin proselytizes in Lampung.
• 1526: The Portuguese build their first fort in Timor.
• 1527: Demak conquers Kediri; the Demak Sultans claim to be Majapahit's successors.
• Demak captures Tuban; Cirebon and Demak occupy Sunda Kelapa, renaming it Jayakarta.
• The Kingdom of Palakaran in Madura converts to Islam under Kyai Pratanu.
• Expeditions from Spain and Mexico attempt to oust the Portuguese from Maluku.
• 1529: Demak conquers Madiun.
• The Spanish and Portuguese kings agree to the Treaty of Zaragoza, granting Maluku to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.
• 1530: Salahuddin becomes Sultan of Aceh.
• Surabaya and Pasuruan fall to Demak; Demak captures Blambangan, the last Hindu kingdom in East Java.
• The Gowa Sultanate begins to expand from Makassar.

Portuguese Timeline (1531-1540)

• 1536: Major Portuguese attack on Johor.
• Antonio da Galvão governs the Portuguese post in Ternate, establishing a post in Ambon.
• The Portuguese exile Sultan Tabariji of Ternate, replacing him with his brother.
• 1537: Aceh's attack on Melaka fails; Salahuddin is replaced by Alaudin Riayat Syah I.
• 1539: Aceh attacks the Batak people in their southern regions.
• 1540: The Portuguese improve diplomatic relations with Gowa.

Portuguese Timeline (1541-1560)

• 1545: Demak conquers Malang; Gowa builds a fort in Ujung Pandang.
• 1546: Demak attacks Blambangan but fails.
• Trenggono of Demak dies and is replaced by Prawata; Joko Tingkir expands his influence from Pajang.
• St. Francis Xavier visits Manado and Kema.
• 1547: Aceh attacks Malacca.
• 1549: Sunan Prawata dies.
• Arya Penangsang replaces Prawata as Sultan of Demak.
• 1550: The Portuguese start building forts in Flores.
• 1551: Johor attacks the Portuguese in Melaka with Jepara's help.
• Forces from Ternate control Jailolo with Portuguese assistance.

Portuguese Timeline (1561-1570)

• 1552: Hasanuddin separates from Demak, founds the Banten Sultanate, and seizes Lampung.
• Aceh sends an envoy to Suleiman I.
• 1558: Leiliato leads a Ternate force to attack the Portuguese in Hitu.
• 1559: Portuguese missionaries land in Timor. Khairun becomes Sultan of Ternate.
• 1560: The Portuguese establish a mission and trading post in Panarukan, East Java.
• 1561: Portuguese Dominican mission is established in Solor.
• 1565: Aceh attacks Johor. Kutai in Kalimantan converts to Islam.
• 1566: The Dominican mission in Solor builds a stone fort.
• 1568: A failed attack by Aceh on Portuguese Melaka.
• 1569: The Portuguese build a wooden fort on Ambon Island.
• 1570: Aceh attacks Johor again but fails.
• Sultan Khairun of Ternate signs a peace deal with the Governor of Mezquita, but Portuguese agents kill Sultan Hairun. Baabullah becomes Sultan and vows to expel the Portuguese.

Portuguese Timeline (1571-1590)

• 1571: Alaudin Riyat Shah dies, causing chaos in Aceh until 1607.
• 1574: Jepara leads a failed attack on Melaka.
• 1575: Sultan Babullah drives the Portuguese from Ternate.
• 1577: Ki Ageng Pemanahan establishes Kota Gede.
• 1579: Banten attacks and destroys Pajajaran, seizing the remnants of the Sunda Kingdom and conducting Islamization.
• November, Sir Francis Drake arrives in Ternate, allying with Sultan Babullah.
• 1580: Kyai Ageng Pemanahan takes over Mataram.
• 1584: Sutawijaya succeeds his father as ruler of Mataram.
• 1585: The Sultan of Aceh sends a letter to Elizabeth I of Britain.
• 1587: Sutawijaya defeats Pajang.
• 1588: Sutawijaya renames himself Panembahan Senopati and seizes Pajang and Demak.

Further Timeline (1591-1659)

• 1591: Senopati captures Madiun, then Kediri.
• Sir James Lancaster arrives in Aceh and Penang, but his mission fails.
• Ternate attacks the Portuguese in Ambon.
• 1593: Ternate again besieges the Portuguese in Ambon.
• 1595: A Dutch expedition under De Houtman departs for the Dutch East Indies on April 2.
• Suriansyah makes Banjar in Kalimantan a Sultanate.
• 1654: The Minahasa allow the Dutch to build a lodge in Manado.

VOC Colonization

• From 1602, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) competed with Portugal and Spain for spice trade dominance.
• The VOC gradually gained control of present-day Indonesia by exploiting divisions among smaller kingdoms.
• The VOC ousted the English East India Company (EIC).
• By 1799, the VOC went bankrupt, transferring its assets to the Dutch kingdom and establishing the Dutch East Indies.
• The VOC's main goal was to maintain its spice trade monopoly, using violence against local populations and traders.
• The VOC interfered in Javanese politics, engaging in wars with Mataram and Banten leaders.

Dutch Government Colonization

• After the VOC's collapse and the Netherlands' defeat in the European war, the Dutch East Indies fell under French control.
• Governers General Overstraten, Wiese, Daendels, and Janssens governed the colony.
• Daendels built the Great Post Road (Anyer-Panarukan) and expanded into Lampung but lost Ambon, Ternate, and Tidore to Britain.

British Interregnum (1811-1816)

• After Britain seized Java, governance temporarily shifted from the Dutch to the British until 1816.
• Lord Minto became the first Governor-General, based in India, and Raffles was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Java.
• Raffles reformed Javanese governance based on the British system, also rediscovering Borobudur Temple.

Dutch Kingdom Rule (from 1816)

• The Dutch Kingdom exerted full authority over the Dutch East Indies after the Vienna Congress in 1816.
• Major Javanese and Sumatran revolts occurred, including the Java War (1825-1830) and the Padri War (1821-1837).
• The "cultuurstelsel" (forced cultivation system) was implemented after 1830. Export crops brought wealth to Dutch and Indonesian authorities, which was abolished after 1870.
• In 1901, the Dutch adopted the "Ethical Policy," investing in indigenous education and initiating political changes.
• Under Governor-General J.B. van Heutsz, the Dutch extended direct colonial rule, laying the foundation for Indonesia's current state.

Nationalist Movement

• The first nationalist movement, Serikat Dagang Islam, formed in 1905, followed by Budi Utomo in 1908.
• The Dutch responded with repressive measures after World War I.
• Nationalist leaders were young professionals and students, some educated in the Netherlands, who were imprisoned for their political activities, including future President Soekarno.

World War II

• In May 1940, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany.
• The Dutch East Indies declared a state of alert.
• Negotiations with Japan to secure fuel supplies failed in June 1941, leading to Japan's invasion of Southeast Asia in December.
• The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.

Japanese Occupation

• In July 1942, Soekarno accepted a Japanese offer to campaign and form a government.
• Soekarno, Hatta, and Kyai were honored by the Japanese Emperor in 1943.
• Indonesian experiences during Japanese rule varied, with severe abuses in strategically important areas, including sexual slavery, arbitrary detention, and war crimes.
• The Dutch and those of mixed Indonesian-Dutch descent were specifically targeted.
• In March 1945, the Japanese established the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPKI).
• On August 9, 1945, Soekarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Widjodiningrat were told that Japan wanted Indonesian independence by August 24.

Independence Era

• Hearing that Japan could no longer make such decisions, Soekarno read the Proclamation on August 17.
• News spread through radio and leaflets, as Indonesian military forces and youth groups moved to defend Soekarno's residence.
• On August 18, 1945, the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) appointed Soekarno as President and Mohammad Hatta as Vice President.
• The Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) was formed as a temporary parliament.
• The new government declared the Republic of Indonesia on August 31.

Independence War

• From 1945 to 1949, Australian maritime unions sympathetic to the independence movement banned Dutch shipping.
• The Dutch attempted to regain control, leading to strong resistance.
• The Dutch retook Batavia, so the nationalists moved their capital to Yogyakarta.
• On December 27, 1949, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands transferred sovereignty to the Federal Government of Indonesia after four years of war and negotiations, and Indonesia became the 60th member of the UN in 1950.

Parliamentary Democracy

• Indonesia adopted a parliamentary system where the executive council was chosen by and responsible to parliament.
• Political parties divided the MPR, making stable government coalitions difficult to achieve.
• Soekarno preferred a secular state, while some Muslim groups wanted an Islamic state.

Guided Democracy

• Failed rebellions weakened Indonesia's parliamentary system.
• In 1959, President Soekarno unilaterally revived the 1945 constitution, granting him extensive presidential powers.
• From 1959 to 1965, Soekarno ruled under an authoritarian regime labeled "Guided Democracy".
• Soekarno shifted Indonesia's foreign policy towards non-alignment.
• In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Soekarno moved closer to Asian communist nations and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI).

Fate of West Irian

• The Dutch retained control of western New Guinea (Papua).
• Failed negotiations between the Indonesian government and the Dutch on integrating the region with Indonesia led to Indonesian paratroopers landing in Irian.
• In 1962, the United States pressed the Netherlands to agree to talks with Indonesia, resulting in the New York Agreement.
• Indonesia took control of Irian Jaya on May 1, 1963.

Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation

• Soekarno opposed the formation of Malaysia, viewing it as a neo-colonialist scheme.
• Soekarno announced Indonesia's withdrawal from the UN on January 20, 1965, and established the Conference of New Emerging Forces (CONEFO).
• Conflict ensued between Indonesian and Malaysian forces.
• In 1965, PKI launched a campaign to create a "Fifth Force" by arming its supporters, opposed by military leaders.

September 30th Movement

• On September 30, 1965, six senior generals were killed in a coup attempt blamed on PKI-affiliated palace guards.
• Major General Soeharto suppressed the coup and turned against the PKI, leading to mass killings of suspected communists.
• The violence in 1966 resulted in at least 500,000 deaths, primarily in Java and Bali.

New Order Era

• After becoming President, Soeharto rejoined the UN, announcing intentions on September 19, 1966, and rejoining on September 28, 1966.
• In 1968, the MPR officially appointed Soeharto to a five-year term as president, with subsequent reappointments in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.
• Soeharto's "New Order" prioritized economic development, implementing policies through a military-dominated administrative structure.
• These policies led to significant but uneven economic growth.

Irian Jaya

• After rejecting UN supervision, Indonesia conducted the "Act of Free Choice" in Irian Jaya in 1969.
• Chosen regional representatives voted to join Indonesia.
• A UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of power to Indonesia.

East Timor

• From 1596 to 1975, East Timor was a colony ruled by Portugal.
• Portugal withdrew from East Timor in 1975, resulting in local elections that saw Fretilin and the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT) gaining power.
• On December 7, 1975, Indonesian forces entered East Timor, leading to widespread human rights abuses.
• Indonesian military killed almost 200,000 East Timorese citizens.
• On August 30, 1999, East Timorese people voted to separate from Indonesia in a UN-organized vote.
• In October 1999, the Indonesian legislature revoked the decree integrating East Timor into Indonesia. Full independence was achieved in May 2002 as Timor Leste.

Economic Crisis

• In mid-1997, Indonesia faced the Asian financial crisis, a severe drought, and falling prices for oil, gas and other exports.
• Demonstrations demanded Soeharto's resignation.
• Soeharto resigned on May 21, 1998, and Vice President B. J. Habibie became the third President of Indonesia.

Reformation Era

• President Habibie formed a cabinet, sought support from the International Monetary Fund, released political prisoners, and reduced controls on freedom of expression.
• Elections were held on June 7, 1999, with Megawati Sukarnoputri's PDI Perjuangan winning the parliamentary election.
• In October 1999, the MPR appointed Abdurrahman Wahid as president and Megawati as vice president for a five-year term.
• President Wahid's administration continued democratization and economic development under challenging circumstances, facing ethnic and religious conflicts.

Megawati Administration

• At the MPR General Session in August 2000, President Gus Dur presented his accountability report.
• On January 29, 2001, demonstrators demanded President Gus Dur's resignation due to corruption scandals.
• Megawati assumed the presidency, with her cabinet called the Gotong Royong Cabinet.
• In 2002, Sipadan and Ligitan Islands were lost from Indonesia based on decision from the International Court.

SBY Administration

• In 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY) was elected as the first directly elected president.
• Early in his term, the administration faced the Aceh and Nias earthquakes in December 2004. On July 17, 2005, the government and the Free Aceh Movement reached a peace agreement.

Joko Widodo Administration

• Information needed for expansion.