History of Forensics and Key Figures

• Forensics involves applying science to the justice system by examining and interpreting civil and criminal evidence.
• It developed significantly through death investigations and became a respected discipline in the 19th century, particularly among European scientists.
• Someone with broad knowledge is a generalist; a specialist possesses extensive knowledge in one area.

Important Figures in Forensics

• Victor Balthazard (1852-1950): A medical examiner and author of the first book on hair analysis, also developed a system for distinguishing bullet and firearm markings and proved the unlikelihood of two people sharing the same fingerprint.
• Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914): The creator of Bertillonage (anthropometry), a system for tracking criminals using 11 body measurements that fingerprinting later replaced.
• Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911): He developed the first fingerprint classification system based on arches, whorls, and loops, documented in his book "FingerPrints."
• Calvin Goddard (1891-1955): A retired army doctor with expertise in firearms identification and classification, he joined the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics in 1925, developing tools for this.
• Hans Gross (1847-1915): He coined the term criminalistics, and authored the first forensics textbook, also advocating for a holistic approach to forensics involving experts from different fields.
• Edmond Locard (1877-1966): His main interest was microscopic trace evidence, his Exchange Principle states that every contact results in a transfer of materials.
• Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853): The founding father of forensic toxicology, his studies focus was arsenic and other poisons.
• Sherlock Holmes and Arthur Doyle played a significant role in popularizing and pioneering forensic science, covering topics like trace evidence, questioned documents, and forensic biology in his stories.

Justice and Science

• The Daubert Standard establishes flexible guidelines, where a trial judge determines the usefulness and relevance of evidence, along with the validity and reliability of testing methods, it is made in Daubert Hearings.

Scientific Method

• Science relies on data and empirical evidence gathered through the scientific method: formulating a hypothesis, testing it through observation and experimentation, revising based on results, and repeating until results align with the hypothesis.
• The scientific method does not apply to the Justice System; it is used only for scientific research.

Adversarial System

• This system involves lawyers representing opposing views, arguing for a cause.
• The adversarial system clashes with the scientific method, as lawyers and scientists emphasize different aspects of the same case.

Modern Practice of Forensics

• Public labs are government funded, while private labs operate for profit.
• Forensic scientists, working in full-service laboratories, can cover many disciplines or work as police officers, engineers, or anthropologists in crime scene squads.
• Accreditation and certification are important in modern forensics.

Legal Proceedings

• Forensic scientists can provide testimonies for civil cases or criminal cases
• Jurisdiction refers to the region where law enforcement or legal entities have authority.
• The tier of fact is a jury or judge makes decisions based on evidence.
• Subpoena states trial details; voir dire explains qualifications like academics and training.

Lesson 2: Evidence: Types and Admissibility

• Evidence is material or information acquired through scientific methods to reconstruct a crime and can be inculpatory or exculpatory, direct or circumstantial.

Inculpatory vs. Exculpatory

• Inculpatory evidence demonstrates involvement in an act or establishes guilt.
• Exculpatory evidence proves a defendant's innocence or is favorable to the defendant.

Circumstantial vs. Direct

• Circumstantial evidence is indirect and implies a fact but does not prove it directly, it can establish a link between a crime and a suspect.
• Physical evidence includes fingerprints, footprints, tool marks, and tire impressions.
• Biological evidence includes body fluids, hair, and plant parts.
• Direct evidence involves first-hand observations like eyewitness accounts, camera.
• Confessions are considered direct evidence.

Types of Evidence

• Trace evidence, a type of circumstantial evidence, includes hair on a brush, fingerprints on glass, blood drops on a shirt, and soil tracked into a house.
• Class evidence narrows identity to a group, allowing exclusion of others.
• Individual evidence narrows identity to a single source, such as a fingerprint or biological evidence.
• Lie detector tests are inadmissible due to reliability concerns; however, statements made during the test may be admissible.

Federal Rules of Evidence. 1969

• Sets guidelines for expert witness testimony but lacks specific criteria for what constitutes being an "expert," it states an expert can testify if they have knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education.

Daubert Decision, 1993

• The Daubert vs Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals case established judges as gatekeepers for admissible scientific evidence.

Securing and Collecting Evidence

• Important that all evidence needs to be properly packaged, sealed, and labeled.
• Liquids and arson remains must be stored in airtight, unbreakable containers.
• Moist evidence should be stored in breathable containers, then packaged in a paper bindle after drying.

Packaging Evidence

• Crease paper, place evidence in the center, fold sides and ends, and tape closed.
• Place bindle in a plastic or paper evidence bag, fold closed, and seal with tape.
• The collector writes their name over the folded edge, and include case number, an item inventory number, evidence description, suspect and victim names, recovery date and time, and signatures of the collector and witnesses on the evidence log.
• Chain of Custody tracks evidence movement through collection, safeguarding, and analysis, documenting each handler, date/time, and purpose of transfer.

Types and Uses

• Reconstructive evidence helps determine events before, during, and after a crime.
• Associative evidence, like hairs, fibers, blood, paint, can be compared to a recount or an exemplar.
• Class characteristics narrow down into general categories
• Individual characteristics connects class evidence to a suspect.
• Chemical (ex: explosives)
• Impression (ex: footprint)
• Fingerprint
• Firearm/toolmark
• Questioned Documents

Lesson 3: Crime Scene Investigation

• Macroscopic crime scenes consist of multiple microscopic ones, such as a house.
• Microscopic crime scenes are focused on specific evidence, like trace evidence on a body.
• Primary locations are the site of the original criminal activity, while secondary locations are subsequent sites.
• The objective in processing a crime scene is to recognize, preserve, collect, and interpret all physical evidence.
• The use of locard's exchange principle to determine the location of a crime scene.
• Info on corpus delicti must be proven to accuse crime
• Modus operandi are consistent preferred method of operation.
• Should prove and disprove witness statements, if consistent
• Accomplish identifications of suspects, identifications of unknown substances and reconstruction of a crime scene ("How" of the crime scene).
• Information, manpower, technology, and logistics are types of crime scene management.

Crime Scene Procedure: 1 - First Responding Officer

• Police officers, emergency medical personnel and firefighters typically arrive first in a crime scene.
• Actions of first arriving officers determine if the investigation is successful
• Upon arrival, safety is primary concern, then initiate crime scene security measures.
• Assist the victim.
• Search for and arrest the suspect if still on scene.
• Protect and secure scene.
• Establish a crime scene security log and limit access.

Crime Scene Procedure: 2 - Crime Scene Survey

• Investigators perform a preliminary scene survey or walk-through.
• Note transient or conditional evidence that needs immediate protection and processing.
• Be aware of weather conditions.
• Note entry, exit points, or paths within the scene.
• Notify superior officers or other agencies when required.
• Digital images are collected.
• The reconstruction theory has begun
• Try to answer who, what, where, when

3 - Crime Scene Documentation and Forensic: Photography

• After walk-through, document for a permanent record before processing.
• The four major tasks of documentation are:
  • Notes (who, what, when, where, why).
  • Videography (follow organized crime scene w/o narration and personnel footage).
  • Photography (Can be inadmissible from manipulation).
  • Sketching (obtaining accurate scene measurement).

Crime Documentation: Sketch

• Sketches are typically from overhead or side-view perspectives
• 3 techniques to obtain measurements:
• Triangulation
• Baseline (fixed line)
• Polar coordinates

Crime Scene Searches

• Looks for less obvious or potentially overlooked items
• Important items are not touched or moved – they are marked without altering the object
• As part of the chain of custody, items must be documented before they are moved
• Can involve enhancement reagents for fluids or impression evidence
• All pieces of evidence must be subjected to the same documentation

Lesson 4: Hair Analysis

• Class evidence connects an individual/thing to a group.
• Trace evidence is small physical or biological evidence at the scene.
• Individual evidence identifies a particular source.
• Comparison microscope analyzes specimens side-by-side.
• The cortex is located outside medulla with pigment granules.
• The cuticle is a tough outer layer of overlapping scales.
• Keratin is a fibrous protein that makes up the cortex.
• Hair follicle is the actively growing base of hair with DNA.
• The medulla is the hair fibre's central core.
• Melanin granules are pigment bits found in the cortex.
• Neutron activation analysis determines element composition in a sample.

History of Hair Analysis

• Analysis of hair was a trace evidence in investigations dating late 1800s.
• The case of the murder can from hair found at the crime scene.
• The comparison microscope to perform side-by-side analysis first occurred in 1934.

Function of Hair

• Is unique to mammals.
• Main purpose is to regulate body temperature.
• Decreases friction, protects against sunlight and is a sense organ.
• Born humans have about 5 million hair follicles.
• Density of hair decreases as one ages.

Structure of Hair

• Follicle tube is embedded in the epidermis with hair growing out, where hair is soft and hardens as it grows
• Only alive at the base of the follicle.
• Keratin is a produced in skin, makes hair strong and flexible, and a keratinization process hardens hair
• Because of keratinization, hair is mostly "dead" when it gets cut
• Hair shaft has three layers: medulla, cortex, cuticle.

Hair Shaft

• The cuticle is transparent with scales which find presence of toxins, drugs, or metals.
• The cortex is the largest part containing melanin granules with pigment.
• The medulla is the centre of hair (hollow/filled), classifying hair into 5 categories depending on appearance
• Continious: One broken line of color
• Interrupted(intermittent): pigmented line broken at regular intervals
• Fragment or Segmented: pigmented line unevenly spaces
• Solid: pigmented area filling both the medulla and the cortex
• None: no separate pigmentation in the medulla

Racial difference in hair:

• European: generally straight or wavy; small and evenly distributed; oval or round moderate diameter with minimal variation, and possible colors include blond, red, brown, or black
• Asian: straight; densely distributed; round with large diameter; and shaft tends to be coarse and straight, thick cuticle, continuous medulla
• African: kinky, curley, or coiled; densely distributed, clumped, may different in size and shape; flattened with moderate to small diameter and considerable variation

The Life Cycle of Hair

First stage - Anagen stage

• "Actively growing" phase.
• New cells are being produced
• Scales covering the shaft help push new cells to the top
• Makes up most of the growth stage.

Second stage - Catagen stage

• Transition phase.
• Slowing production of cells.
• Root condenses into a root bulb.

Final stage - Telogen stage

• Resting phase.
• Hair is only still on your head because of the scales are hanging onto skin.
• Root bulb fully formed.
• Hair falls out, it triggers anagen phase.
• The body differences from hair
• Buckling - abrupt change in direction of hair
• Shouldering - when the cross section is asymmetrical

Animal Hair VS Human Hair

• Animal/human hair differ in pigment, medullary index, and cuticle type.
• Animal pigments are often found in solid masses called ovoid bodies, especially in dogs and cattle.
• If the medullary index of a hair came from an animal is 0.5 or greater, it came from an animal and if 0.33 or less, it is from a human.

Treated Hair

• Bleaching hair oxidizes the pigment removing more color.
• You can still find the original manner of the hair.
• Human Hair grow 1.3cm/month.
• Number of months since hair color estimate: naturally colored hair length / 1.3cm
• Burnt and crushed hair are identifiable.

Using hair in an investigation

• Effective Trace evidence (because DNA can be collected from follicle and shaft).
• Can be collected by plucking, shaking, scraping surfaces.
• Prevent cross-contamination hair.
• If a large number of hairs are collected from a victim or a crime scene, an investigator will compare the sample with hair taken from the six major body regions of the victim or suspect(s).
• A comparison microscope will hair analyze analysis.
• Length, color, and curliness are macroscopic characteristics
• Microscopic characteristics include the pattern of the medulla, pigmentation of the cortex, and types of scales on the cuticle.

Testing Hair

• Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) useful technique that identifies up to 14 elements in a single 2cm hair strand (hair placed in reactor and bombarded with neutrons causing elements to give off gamma radiation)
• If hair is forcibly removed from a victim, the entire follicle may be present, name follicular tag.

Lesson 5: Death Investigation

• Coroners are government agents to determine death.
• Coroners before had no education or training.
• Massachusetts first state to replace with medical examiners.
• Medical examiners required to be licensed and practice medicine.

Forensic Pathology

• Physicians specialising in pathology (diagnosis of disease).
• Perform autopsies.

Cause and Mechanism of Death

• The disease/injury initiated lethal events leading to death with underlying cause.
• Mechanism of death: the biochemical or physiological abnormality produced by death, that is incompatible with life

Manner of Death

• Manner of death is the fashion in which the cause of death came to be.
• There are only five possible manners of death: NASH
• Natural (Ex. of old age)
• Accidental (Ex. Car crash)
• Homicidal (Ex. Murdered by rope)
• Suicidal (Ex. overdose, gun, etc.)
• Undetermined

Post Mortem Interval and Time of Death

• Post Mortem Intervals blocks of time following death to determine time Since Death.
• Segmentation of retinal blood vessels (30min).
• Loss of intraocular pressure (reaches 4mmHG in 6 hrs).
• Cornea cloudy (2hrs).
• Gastric contents can measure Time since death if we know last meal was and its size.
• No cellular death – therefore not too much change in morphology.

Early PMI (6-72 hours)

• Rigor mortis is the stiffening of muscles following death.
• Livor mortis is the discoloration of the body from settling blood cells.
• Lividity can show a sign of the disappearance with approximately 36 hrs after death, through the decomposition of body.

Rigor Mortis Timeline

• Factors Affecting Rigor

Early PMI (6-72 hours): Algor Mortis

• Algor mortis is the temperature drop in body after death.
• Body temp drops 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit per hour with no extenuating environmental conditions.
• Body Temp = 98 – 1.5(# hrs passed)

Late PMI and decomposition

Within two days after death

• Green and purplish staining occurs from blood.
• Skin takes on a marbled appearance.
• Face discoloured. After four days
• The skin blisters.
• Abdomen swells with carbon dioxide from intestine bacteria. Within six to ten days
• Corpse bloats with carbon dioxide as bacteria continue to feed on tissues.
• Eventually gas causes chest and abdominal cavities to burst and collapse.

Lesson 6: Investigation of Traumatic Death

• Autopsy consists of a visual/external examination followed by an internal examination.
• External examination includes: careful description of the deceased’s clothing.
• Trauma evidence is recorded with measurements and damage to clothing should correspond to type of trauma.
• Wounds caused by a self defense (e.g. forearm lacerations) are defensive wounds.

Classification of Trauma

• Mechanical Trauma is usually caused through tools.
• Aphyxias: Lack of oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide
• Chemical Trauma: Chemical toxins (e.g. acid burns, alkaline burns ).
• Thermal Trauma: Radiation or heat wounds
• Electrical Trauma:

Mechanical Trauma

• Force applied to tissue is greater than tensile strength of the tissue.
• Sharp force trauma pointy= produces incised wounds (deep + narrow) but doesnt require much force.
• Blunt force trauma dull= produces lacerations (tears in skin)
• Wound dimensions reveal insights on whats caused the trauma.

Proof of Mechanical Trauma

• Sharp trauma die= exsanguination (bleeding).
• Blunt trauma death= from brain damage internally.
• Contusion: bruise, internal bleeding.
• Pattern of an object can be transferred to skin.
• Hematoma 🡪 extreme contusion, clotting blood blocks blood vessels = no more blood circulates = dead
• Abrasion 🡪 scraping of the skin

Asphyxia

• A kind of mechanical trauma deprives body of oxygen.
• Brain is most susceptible.
• People pass out after about 10s no oxygen and have irreversible damage after about 4 minutes.
• Suffocation: the nose/mouth airways are blocked.
• Strangulation: manual or ligature compression of neck and leaves evidence behind such as bruise marks, fractured hyoid bone, petechiae lining eyes, mouth, throat.
• Chemical asphyxiation: no Oxygen in the air (e.g. CO poisoning).

Gunshot Wounds (GSW)

• A kind of mechanical trauma by projectile.
• There will be another lesson on this, summary of different kinds of GSW in table

Thermal Trauma

• Hypothermia temperature drops= alcohol lessens sensitivity to cold and dilates blood vessels, hence speeds up cooling.
• Hyperthermia temperature increases can get to 60 degrees C in closed car, deadly for a child in 10 minutes.
• Normal body temp: 98 F/ 37 C.
• Indicator: environment
• Susceptibility: young and old
• Thermal burns

Electrical Trauma

• Current alternates between 2500-3600 times per minute depending on where you are in the world and your heart maxes out at 300 bpm before giving out, can lead to V-fib.
• High Voltage current= heart stops (defibrillation) and goes into a state of constant contraction
• If circuit is broken, heart can beat normally again- causes severe burns & cell death.

Lesson 7: Entomology

• Entomology is the study of insects.
• Forensic or medico-legal entomology is the study of insects associated with a body (human or animal) in a legal context.
• In the first few hours of death, the elapsed time can be scientifically estimated.
• Cooling of the body (algor mortis).
• Stiffening of the body (liver mortis).
• Colouration change of the body (liver mortis).
• 24-48 hours is of little value.
• Police turn it over to forensic entomologist.

Forensic Entomology:

• Insects colonise a body almost immediately after death.
• Rate of development can estimate the minimum time that a person has been dead
• Can estimate from a matter of hours up to a year postmortem
• Can also be used to help understand other factors surrounding a death
• Insects can also be useful in wildlife investigations

Importance of estimating elapsed time since death:

• Estimating time of death is important regardless if in deemed criminal or not
• Important for the family and friends of a victim to allow for proper grieving and closure
• Particularly important when time has elapsed between when the person was last seen alive and when the person’s decomposed remains are found
• Timing of death may have legal implications

History of Forensic Entomology:

• forensic entomology is one of the oldest forensic sciences: Published writings 10th/13 century.
• Modern forensic entomology: France 1894 Jean-Pierre Megnin work
• 1970s was brought over in North America
• Today, forensic entomologist are commonly called to crime scenes and present expert testimony

Estimating Minimum Elapsed Time Since Death:

• There are 2 methods commonly used to estimate elapsed time since death using entomological evidence:
• Dipteran Larval Development or Maggot Aging
• Successional Colonisation of a Body

Estimating Minimum Elapsed Time Since Death: Dipteran Larval Development:

• Humans in exact same way animal
• The first insects that are usually attracted to carrion are family
• Blow flies are attracted to dead bodies because they contains proteins to allow their genitalia to develop and adult females seeking a suitable site to lay eggs
• As maggots or larvae they rely exclusively on decaying material
• Dead bodies: chemical cues
• Blowflies ARE NOT active in the winter months in North America as it is too cold
• Blowflies are diurnal- awareness of tie of day
• Blowflies are attracted to wound first as blood is a good source of protein for maggots
• Adult human skin- tough for small maggots to break
• Develop from egg stage through maggots, then enter before becoming adults.
• Predictable development by species/temp.: In cold blood

Estimating Minimum Elapsed Time Since Death factors

• The oldest stage of blow fly associated with the body
• The species of insect
• Temperature data
• Developmental data
• How long does it take this species to reach this stage, under these conditions
• Science of forensic entomology- estimating the length of insects on a body,death
• Entomologist usually rely on the min/average development rates insects
• Accuracy
• Prison

Estimating Minimum Elapsed Time Since Death: Successional Colonisation of a Body:

• Sequences for insect species since a changes in decomposing body are predictable within (Dynamic Sequence)
• Depends on research data avalaible for comparable regions and scenarios
• Entomologists make a gain amount for various conditions.
• Other Uses of Insects in Death Investigations: Indicating Whether the Body has been moved
• Body weight/dump locations

Other Uses of Insects in Death Investigations: Determining Whether the Body has been Disturbed After Death:

• Disturb the body
• Disturb the insects
• Estimate time frame for when body was disturbed

Other Uses of Insects in Death Investigations: Locating the Position of Wounds:

• Blowflies are attract near wound so first-instar maggots have access to protein
• Oldest maggots at the natural orifices= no wounds
• Oldest maggots in the stomach= probable of wound within that region.

Other Uses of Insects in Death Investigations: Linking Suspect to Scene

• Locard’s Exchange Principle
• Entomological evidence can link them back to the scene and/or victim
• Entomotoxicology- insects feed on tissues, toxins.
• Analysis by toxicology
• Identitify with qualitiative of chemicals
• Drugs may also impact the development of insects.

Other Uses of Insects in Death Investigations: DNA and Insects:

• Identify the species
• Human DNA from insects
• Neglect
• Lack of Insects
• The body can be a different loction
• Wildlife neglection with hunting and pet crimes

Challenges of Forensic Entomology:

• Temperature exact temp
• Season with the spring and fall

Lesson 8: Blood Spatter

• Blood composition is plasma, proteins.
• Contains ions such as calcium, potassium, essential in the body.
• Red blood cells carries gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Hemoglobin in responsible for the red pigment.
• The white blood cells foriegn invaders and diseases
• Broken parts of chunky bone marrow aid blood clotting.
• Blood types is Cell-surface proteins.
• A and B proteins contain Rh factor.
• Blood profiling is quicker and easier.
• Considered class evidence.
• Only white cells has a nucleus.

Types of shapes of blood

• Blood shape is smooth on smooth and porous on rought.
• 6 splatter patterns
• circular = passive fall, arterial = spurys/gushes, splice shape is point of incident, smear = against wall/furniture, trails = when a blledign victims moved (round,smeared, spurts)

Patterns

• Fine mist= high velocity impact.
• blunt object will be create a lowe velocity impact.
• Voids with missing people?

Factors

• Direction circular is from above.
• Direction shape is direction of fall.

Direction of Angle

• Find direction based on lines.

Lesson 9: Fingerprints

• Are covered in friction ridges
• Textures determine
• Developed in utero and stay the same (fixed by 17 weeks)
• Allow for better grippiness
• Are imprint of ridges left by sweat glands.
• Traces left upon touching.
• Friction,volar pads and various factors

Types of Fingerprints

• Patent: Visible prints blood or liquid contact Plastic: Actual indentations in clam Latent: Hidden transfer oils and secretion pattern

Collecting

• Apply dusting patterns.
• Use drinking cups, and faucets.
• Fine bristles with colours and tape.
• Take a picture before print.

Collection CHEMICAL VS uses.

• Nihydrin (24 hours on paper)
• Silver (wood) -dip of pray
• ester (gule/metal)
• iodine (paper. cardboard

Characteristics= accidents.

• loops, whorls, arches and various minutia.
• Most prints partial
• Agencies used to require points with finger prints

Analysis

• By 1987, the FBI
• Manual searches
• IAFIS with searching latents

Altered

• Criminals devise ways to avoid
• Pineaple substances.

Lesson 10: DNA Fingerprinting

• None same dna
• DNA technology, paternity
• used to link/eliminate

Evidence, ID

• skin, hair
• trait is traits/ variant analysis
• exclude etcs
• trace and connect suspect

Structure

material- protein and reolicate

• chromosomes w and 2 strands protein moelculars

Alleles - genes and types (traits codes), rna and dna sequences

more than half of code are for proteins

• D

Bases

actg sugars and base backbone for bond to strands double helix

MITIO

found and is looped

ID

variate or ployophism detrmen indivdual id

Vtrs STR

coded DNA sequence

Profile Tissue samples from bands are same

Inheritance

• inherited or two genes

Population

studies on percent

• calculate percentage matching in crime

SOource DNA

cells blood, salivia

PCR

trace mounts

Collection

• disposable, sterile - no contimantion if damage - can contaimate

Preparing

Enzyme cut mix samples

STEPS

Extraction, restrictions, amplification, electrophoresis

Electrophoresis

electrical - separates base

• micropipette

Probes

Sequences codes match and DNA

Paternity

Inhereted one gene

APP

aid crim anal

Lesson 11: DNA Fingerprinting

• Application of theory and methods of anthropology to forensic problems Specialised in physical anthropology: skeletal Forensic taphonomy - interpretation outdoor death scenes and postmortem processes Forensic archaeology - recovery scattered/buried remains Soft tissue modelling Biomechanics- injuries Complements soft tissue

Examination focuses:

Identifying the victim/profile Taphonomic assessment: reconstruction of the postmortem period with data Forensic - modern for the profession in court.

Serve consultants

• Modern history the articles.
• Anthropology during wars identify
• 1977 ABFA for exam

study explain pattern and development for body

• combine scientif input

locating

• help Law when recovering remains or in assualts
• Terrestrial or over water
• Range team search
• Archaeological = record spacing

Recovering

Entire are photos document Remove gently w data Remove small bone etc safe

IF HUMAN AND IMPORTANT

• are they found

Taphomony + examination

Profile

age

and size

dentition

sex different 30 or more in each gender

Skeleton

• Density related in females
• Indicators for pubic areas

Determination sex

Different, shape sized sex

Population

Different

• Ancestry difficult

Height

• Change estimates

Identification

Visual / evidence

• Postive

Profile description

Help with characteristics

Trauma

And what and why the injuries or trauma - forces

Testimony (court)

Scientif neutral